Editing Arabs (section)

=== Middle Ages ===
{{main|Spread of Islam|Arab conquests}}
[[File:The Early Muslim Conquests 630s to 820s.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|The early Arab conquests by reign]]
During the [[Middle Ages]], Arab civilization flourished and the Arabs made significant contributions to the fields of [[science]], [[mathematics]], [[medicine]], [[philosophy]], and [[literature]], with the rise of great cities like [[Baghdad]], [[Cairo]], and [[Córdoba, Spain|Cordoba]], they became centers of learning, attracting scholars, scientists, and intellectuals.<ref name="Wenner 1980 59–79">{{Cite journal|last=Wenner|first=Manfred W.|date=1980|title=The Arab/Muslim Presence in Medieval Central Europe|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/163627|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies|volume=12|issue=1|pages=59–79|doi=10.1017/S0020743800027136|issn=0020-7438|jstor=163627|s2cid=162537404}}</ref><ref name="A Golden age of Arab culture">{{Cite web|title=A Golden age of Arab culture|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000074817|access-date=26 March 2023|website=unesdoc.unesco.org}}</ref> Arabs forged many empires and dynasties, most notably, the Rashidun Empire, the Umayyad Empire, the Abbasid Empire, the Fatimid Empire, among others. These empires were characterized by their expansion, scientific achievements, and cultural flourishing, extended from [[Spain]] to India.<ref name="Wenner 1980 59–79"/> The region was vibrant and dynamic during the Middle Ages and left a lasting impact on the world.<ref name="A Golden age of Arab culture"/><timeline>
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  from: 622  till:  632  color:era text:[[Muhammad]]
  from: 632  till:  634  color:age text:[[Abu Bakr]]
  from: 634  till:  644  color:era text:[[Umar ibn al-Khattab]]
  from: 644  till:  656  color:age text:[[Uthman ibn Affan]]
  from: 656  till:  661  color:era text:[[Ali ibn Abi Talib]]
  from: 661  till:  666  color:age text:[[Muawiyah I]]
</timeline>The [[Spread of Islam|rise of Islam]] began when [[Muhammad]] and his followers migrated from [[Mecca]] to [[Medina]] in an event known as the [[Hijrah|Hijra]]. Muhammad spent the last ten years of his life engaged in a series of battles to establish and expand the Muslim community. From 622 to 632, he led the Muslims in a state of war against the Meccans.<ref name="Collins142">Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 142–143, 150, 160</ref> During this period, the Arabs conquered the region of [[Basra]], and under the leadership of [[Umar]], they established a base and built a mosque there. Another conquest was [[Midian]], but due to its harsh environment, the settlers eventually moved to [[Kufa]]. Umar successfully defeated rebellions by various Arab tribes, bringing stability to the entire Arabian peninsula and unifying it. Under the leadership of [[Uthman]], the Arab empire expanded through the [[Arab conquest of Persia|conquest of Persia]], with the capture of Fars in 650 and parts of [[Khorasan province|Khorasan]] in 651.<ref name="Cunliffe4212">Cunliffe ''Europe Between the Oceans'' pp. 421–423</ref> The [[Arab conquest of armenia|conquest of Armenia]] also began in the 640s. During this time, the Rashidun Empire extended its rule over the entire [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanid Empire]] and more than two-thirds of the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman Empire]]. However, the reign of [[Ali|Ali ibn Abi Talib]], the fourth caliph, was marred by the [[First Fitna]], or the First Islamic Civil War, which lasted throughout his rule. After a peace treaty with [[Hasan ibn Ali|Hassan ibn Ali]] and the suppression of early [[Kharijites|Kharijite]] disturbances, [[Mu'awiya I|Muawiyah I]] became the Caliph.<ref name="Brown15">Brown "Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' p. 15</ref> This marked a significant transition in leadership.<ref name="Cunliffe4212"/><ref name="Collins376">Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 376–377</ref>

==== Arab empires ====

===== Rashidun era (632–661) =====
{{main|Rashidun Caliphate}}
{{See also|Succession to Muhammad|Saqifa|Election of Uthman|Assassination of Uthman}}
{{Further|First Fitna|Muslim conquest of Persia|Muslim conquest of the Levant|Arab conquest of Egypt|Muslim conquest of the Maghreb}}
After the death of [[Muhammad]] in 632, [[Rashidun army|Rashidun armies]] launched campaigns of conquest, establishing the [[Caliphate]], or Islamic Empire, one of the [[List of largest empires|largest empires in history]]. It was larger and lasted longer than the previous Arab empire [[Tanukhids]] of [[Mavia (queen)|Queen Mawia]] or the Arab [[Palmyrene Empire]]. The Rashidun state was a completely new state and unlike the Arab kingdoms of its century such as the [[Himyarite]], [[Lakhmids]] or [[Ghassanids]].

During the Rashidun era, the Arab community expanded rapidly, conquering many territories and establishing a vast Arab empire, which is marked by the reign of the first four caliphs, or leaders, of the Arab community.<ref name="Understanding Islam: The First Ten Steps">{{cite book|author1=C. T. R. Hewer|title=Understanding Islam: The First Ten Steps|author2=Allan Anderson|date=2006|publisher=Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd|isbn=978-0334040323|edition=illustrated|page=37}}</ref> These caliphs are [[Abu Bakr]], [[Umar]], [[Uthman]] and [[Ali]], who are collectively known as the Rashidun, meaning "rightly guided." The Rashidun era is significant in Arab and Islamic history as it marks the beginning of the Arab empire and the [[spread of Islam]] beyond the Arabian Peninsula. During this time, the Arab community faced numerous challenges, including internal divisions and external threats from neighboring empires.<ref name="Understanding Islam: The First Ten Steps" /><ref name="Triana 159">{{Cite book|last=Triana|first=María|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VC4lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA159|title=Managing Diversity in Organizations: A Global Perspective|date=2017|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1317423683|pages=159}}</ref>

Under the leadership of Abu Bakr, the Arab community successfully quelled a [[rebellion]] by some tribes who refused to pay [[Zakat]], or Islamic charity. During the reign of Umar ibn al-Khattab, the Arab empire expanded significantly, conquering territories such as Egypt, [[Syria]], and [[Iraq]]. The reign of Uthman ibn Affan was marked by internal dissent and rebellion, which ultimately led to his assassination. Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of [[Muhammad]], succeeded Uthman as caliph but faced opposition from some members of the Islamic community who believed he was not rightfully appointed.<ref name="Understanding Islam: The First Ten Steps" /> Despite these challenges, the Rashidun era is remembered as a time of great progress and achievement in Arab and Islamic history. The caliphs established a system of governance that emphasized [[justice]] and equality for all members of the Islamic community. They also oversaw the compilation of the Quran into a single text and spread Arabic teachings and principles throughout the empire. Overall, the Rashidun era played a crucial role in shaping Arab history and continues to be revered by Muslims worldwide as a period of exemplary leadership and guidance.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Azyumardi Azra|title=Indonesia, Islam, and Democracy: Dynamics in a Global Context|date=2006|publisher=[[Equinox Publishing (London)]]|isbn=978-9799988812|page=9}}</ref>

===== Umayyad era (661–750 and 756–1031) =====
{{main|Umayyad dynasty|Umayyad Caliphate}}
{{Further|Arab conquest of armenia|Arab conquest of the Maghreb|Muslim conquest of Spain|Muslim conquest of Transoxiana
|Umayyad campaigns in India}}
{{See also|Abbadid|Taifa|Nasrid dynasty (Sistan)|Zengid dynasty|Ikhshidid dynasty|Caliphate of Córdoba|Al-Andalus|}}
In 661, the Rashidun Caliphate fell into the hands of the [[Banu Umayya|Umayyad dynasty]] and [[Damascus]] was established as the empire's capital. The Umayyads were proud of their Arab identity and sponsored the poetry and culture of pre-Islamic Arabia. They established garrison towns at [[Ramla]], [[Raqqa]], [[Basra]], [[Kufa]], [[Mosul]] and [[Samarra]], all of which developed into major cities.<ref name="Lunde">{{Cite book|last=Lunde|first=Paul|title=Islam|publisher=Dorling Kindersley Publishing|year=2002|isbn=978-0789487971|location=New York|pages=50–52}}</ref> [[Caliph]] [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan|Abd al-Malik]] established Arabic as the Caliphate's official language in 686.<ref>John Joseph Saunders, ''A history of medieval Islam'', Routledge, 1965, page 13</ref> Caliph [[Umar II]] strove to resolve the conflict when he came to power in 717, demanding that all Muslims be treated as equals, but his intended reforms did not take effect, as he died after only three years of rule. By now, discontent with the Umayyads swept the region and an uprising occurred in which the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasids]] came to power and moved the capital to [[Baghdad]].
[[File:La civilització del califat de Còrdova en temps d'Abd-al-Rahman III.jpg|thumb|The [[Caliphate of Córdoba|Caliphate of Còrdova]] during the reign of [[Abd al-Rahman III]]. Receiving the Ambassador by [[Dionisio Baixeras Verdaguer]] 1885 CE.]]
Umayyads expanded their Empire westwards capturing North Africa from the Byzantines. Before the Arab conquest, North Africa was conquered or settled by various people including [[Punics]], Vandals and Romans. After the [[Abbasid Revolution]], the Umayyads lost most of their territories with the exception of Iberia.

Their last holding became known as the [[Emirate of Córdoba]]. It was not until the rule of the grandson of the founder of this new emirate that the state entered a new phase as the [[Caliphate of Córdoba]]. This new state was characterized by an expansion of trade, culture and knowledge, and saw the construction of masterpieces of [[al-Andalus]] architecture and the library of [[Al-Ḥakam II]] which housed over 400,000 volumes. With the collapse of the Umayyad state in 1031 CE, [[Al-Andalus]] was divided into [[Taifa|small kingdoms]].<ref>Clifford Edmund Bosworth [https://books.google.com/books?id=UB4uSVt3ulUC&pg=PA264 Historic cities of the Islamic world], Brill, Leyden, 2007, {{ISBN|9004153888}} p. 264</ref>

===== Abbasid era (750–1258 and 1261–1517) =====
{{main|Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid Revolution}}
{{Further|Anarchy at Samarra|Siege of Baghdad (1258)|Mongol invasions of the Levant||}}
[[File:Harun al-Rashid receives envoys from Charlemagne.jpg|thumb|[[Harun al-Rashid]] ([[Reign|r.]] 786–809) receiving a delegation sent by [[Charlemagne]] at his court in Baghdad.|left]]
The Abbasids were the descendants of [[Al-Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib|Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib]], one of the youngest uncles of Muhammad and of the same [[Banu Hashim]] clan. The Abbasids led a revolt against the Umayyads and defeated them in the [[Battle of the Zab]] effectively ending their rule in all parts of the Empire with the exception of al-Andalus. In 762, the second Abbasid Caliph [[al-Mansur]] founded the city of [[Baghdad]] and declared it the capital of the Caliphate. Unlike the Umayyads, the Abbasids had the support of non-Arab subjects.<ref name="Lunde" /> The [[Islamic Golden Age]] was inaugurated by the middle of the 8th century by the ascension of the Abbasid Caliphate and the transfer of the capital from [[Damascus]] to the newly founded city of [[Baghdad]]. The Abbasids were influenced by the [[Quran]]ic injunctions and [[hadith]] such as "The ink of the scholar is more holy than the blood of martyrs" stressing the value of knowledge.
[[File:001124-MalwiyaMosque-Samerra-IMG_7824-2.jpg|thumb|Malwiyah Mosque, [[Samarra|Samerra]], Iraq]]
During this period the Arab Empire became an intellectual centre for science, philosophy, medicine and education as the Abbasids championed the cause of knowledge and established the "[[House of Wisdom]]" in Baghdad. Rival dynasties such as the [[Fatimid]]s of [[Egypt]] and the [[Umayyad]]s of al-Andalus were also major intellectual centres with cities such as [[Cairo]] and [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] rivaling [[Baghdad]].<ref name="Vartan">Vartan Gregorian, "Islam: A Mosaic, Not a Monolith", Brookings Institution Press, 2003, pp. 26–38 {{ISBN|081573283X}}</ref> The Abbasids ruled for 200 years before they lost their central control when [[Wilayah|Wilayas]] began to fracture in the 10th century; afterwards, in the 1190s, there was a revival of their power, which was ended by the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]], who [[Siege of Baghdad (1258)|conquered Baghdad]] in 1258 and killed the Caliph [[Al-Musta'sim]]. Members of the Abbasid royal family escaped the massacre and resorted to Cairo, which had broken from the Abbasid rule two years earlier; the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk]] generals taking the political side of the kingdom while Abbasid Caliphs were engaged in civil activities and continued patronizing science, arts and literature.

===== Fatimid era (909–1171) =====
{{main|Fatimid dynasty|Fatimid Caliphate}}
[[File:Skylitzes_Simeon_sending_envoys_to_the_Fatimids.jpg|thumb|Bulgarian emperor [[Simeon I of Bulgaria|Simeon]] (left) sending envoys to Caliph al-Mahdi (right). 12th-century miniature from the ''[[Madrid Skylitzes]]'']]
The Fatimid caliphate was founded by [[Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah|al-Mahdi Billah]], a descendant of [[Fatimah]], the daughter of Muhammad, the Fatimid Caliphate was a [[Shia Islam|Shia]] that existed from 909 to 1171 CE. The empire was based in North Africa, with its capital in [[Cairo]], and at its height, it controlled a vast territory that included parts of modern-day [[Egypt]], [[Libya]], [[Tunisia]], [[Algeria]], [[Morocco]], [[Syria]], and [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. The Fatimid state took shape among the [[Kutama]], in the West of the North African littoral, in Algeria, in 909 conquering [[Raqqada]], the [[Aghlabid]] capital. In 921 the Fatimids established the Tunisian city of [[Mahdia]] as their new capital. In 948 they shifted their capital to [[Mansouria, Tunisia|Al-Mansuriya]], near [[Kairouan]] in Tunisia, and in 969 they conquered Egypt and established Cairo as the capital of their caliphate.
[[File:Azhar mosque.jpg|left|thumb|[[Al-Azhar Mosque]] in [[Cairo|Cairo, Egypt]] in the [[Islamic Cairo|historic Islamic core of the city]], Cairo was established as the new capital of the [[Fatimid Caliphate]] in 970]]
The Fatimids were known for their religious tolerance and intellectual achievements, they established a network of universities and libraries that became centers of learning in the [[Muslim world|Islamic world]]. They also promoted the arts, architecture, and literature, which flourished under their patronage. One of the most notable achievements of the Fatimids was the construction of the [[Al-Azhar Mosque]] and [[Al-Azhar University]] in Cairo. Founded in 970 CE, it is one of the oldest universities in the world and remains an important center of Islamic learning to this day. The Fatimids also had a significant impact on the development of [[Schools of Islamic theology|Islamic theology]] and [[Fiqh|jurisprudence]]. They were known for their support of Shia Islam and their promotion of the [[Isma'ilism|Ismaili]] branch of Shia Islam. Despite their many achievements, the Fatimids faced numerous challenges during their reign. They were constantly at war with neighboring empires, including the Abbasid Caliphate and the [[Byzantine Empire]]. They also faced internal conflicts and rebellions, which weakened their empire over time. In 1171 CE, the Fatimid Caliphate was conquered by the [[Ayyubid dynasty]], led by [[Saladin]]. Although the Fatimid dynasty came to an end, its legacy continued to influence Arab-Islamic culture and society for centuries to come.<ref name="imamreza.net">Shorter Shi'ite Encyclopaedia, By: Hasan al-Amin, {{Cite web|title=Fatimid Dynasty in Egypt|url=http://www.imamreza.net/eng/imamreza.php?id=574|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616060639/http://imamreza.net/eng/imamreza.php?id=574|archive-date=16 June 2010|access-date=5 October 2010}}</ref>

===== Ottoman era (1517–1918) =====
{{Main|Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Caliphate}}
{{Further|Arab Revolt|Campaigns of the Arab Revolt|Middle Eastern theatre of World War I||}}
[[File:Sharif Hussein portrait.jpeg|thumb|[[Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz|Hussein bin Ali al-Hashimi]] (1854–1931) was a prominent Arab leader who served as the [[Sharifian Solution|Sharif]] and [[Sharif of Mecca|Emir of Mecca]] from 1908 until 1917. He was a member of the [[Hashemites|Hashemite dynasty]], which claimed descent from [[Muhammad]].|left]]
From 1517 to 1918, The Ottomans defeated the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultanate]] in Cairo, and ended the Abbasid Caliphate in the battles of [[Battle of Marj Dabiq|Marj Dabiq]] and [[Battle of Ridaniya|Ridaniya]]. They entered the [[Levant]] and Egypt as conquerors, and brought down the Abbasid caliphate after it lasted for many centuries. In 1911, Arab intellectuals and politicians from throughout the Levant formed al-Fatat ("the [[Young Arab Society]]"), a small Arab nationalist club, in Paris. Its stated aim was "raising the level of the [[Arab Nationalist Movement|Arab nation]] to the level of modern nations." In the first few years of its existence, al-Fatat called for greater autonomy within a unified Ottoman state rather than Arab independence from the empire. Al-Fatat hosted the [[Arab Congress of 1913]] in Paris, the purpose of which was to discuss desired reforms with other dissenting individuals from the Arab world.<ref>Zeine N. Zeine (1973) ''The Emergence of Arab Nationalism'' (3rd ed.). Delmar, New York: Caravan Books Inc. {{ISBN|0882060007}}. pp. 60–61, 83–92.</ref> However, as the Ottoman authorities cracked down on the organization's activities and members, al-Fatat went underground and demanded the complete independence and unity of the Arab provinces.<ref name="Choueiri166">Choueiri, pp. 166–168.</ref>
[[File:MPK1-426 Sykes Picot Agreement Map signed 8 May 1916.jpg|thumb|The region covered by the modus vivendi, as agreed in the 1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement]]
The [[Arab Revolt]] was a military uprising of Arab forces against the Ottoman Empire during World War I, began in 1916, led by [[Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz|Sherif Hussein bin Ali]], the goal of the revolt was to gain independence for the Arab lands under Ottoman rule and to create a unified Arab state. The revolt was sparked by a number of factors, including the Arab desire for greater autonomy within the Ottoman Empire, resentment towards Ottoman policies, and the influence of Arab nationalist movements. The Arab Revolt was a significant factor in the eventual [[Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|defeat of the Ottoman Empire]]. The revolt helped to weaken Ottoman military power and tie up Ottoman forces that could have been deployed elsewhere. It also helped to increase support for Arab independence and nationalism, which would have a lasting impact on the region in the years to come.<ref>William Easterly, ''The White Man's Burden'', (2006) p. 295</ref><ref>Jeremy Wilson (1989) ''[[Lawrence of Arabia: The Authorised Biography of T. E. Lawrence]]''. William Heinemann. {{ISBN|978-0434872350}}. p. 548</ref> The Empire's defeat and the occupation of part of its territory by the [[Allies of World War I|Allied Powers]] in the [[aftermath of World War I]], the [[Sykes–Picot Agreement]] had a significant impact on the Arab world and its people. The agreement divided the Arab territories of the Ottoman Empire into zones of control for France and Britain, ignoring the aspirations of the Arab people for independence and self-determination.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mikaberidze|first=Alexander|title=Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2011|isbn=978-1598843361|pages=799–802}}</ref>