Editing Antisemitism (section)

==Manifestations==
[[File:Medieval manuscript-Jews identified by rouelle are being burned at stake.jpg|thumb|Jews (identified by the mandatory [[Jewish badge]] and [[Jewish hat]]) being burned.]]

Antisemitism manifests itself in a variety of ways. [[René König]] mentions social antisemitism, economic antisemitism, religious antisemitism, and political antisemitism as examples. König points out that these different forms demonstrate that the "origins of anti-Semitic prejudices are rooted in different historical periods." König asserts that differences in the chronology of different antisemitic prejudices and the irregular distribution of such prejudices over different segments of the population create "serious difficulties in the definition of the different kinds of anti-Semitism."<ref>{{cite book |title=Materialien zur Kriminalsoziologie |language=de |trans-title=Materials on Criminal Sociology |first=René |last=König |publisher=[[VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften|VS Verlag]] |year=2004 |page=231 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N9oL2cljv8QC&pg=PA231 |isbn=978-3-8100-3306-2 |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000128/https://books.google.com/books?id=N9oL2cljv8QC&pg=PA231 |url-status=live}}</ref>

These difficulties may contribute to the existence of different taxonomies that have been developed to categorize the forms of antisemitism. The forms identified are substantially the same; it is primarily the number of forms and their definitions that differ. [[Bernard Lazare]], writing in the 1890s, identified three forms of antisemitism: [[Christianity and antisemitism|Christian antisemitism]], economic antisemitism, and ethnologic antisemitism.<ref>{{cite book |title=Anti-Semitism: Its History and Causes |first=Bernard |last=Lazare |publisher=Cosimo, Inc. |year=2006 |page=224 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VP81v2Y24HUC&pg=PA224 |isbn=978-1-59605-601-5 |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000042/https://books.google.com/books?id=VP81v2Y24HUC&pg=PA224#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref> [[William I. Brustein|William Brustein]] names four categories: religious, racial, economic, and political.<ref>{{cite book |title=Roots of hate: anti-semitism in Europe before the Holocaust |first=William |last=Brustein |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2003 |page=46 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hc3HabBQsdsC&pg=PA46 |isbn=978-0-521-77478-9 |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000114/https://books.google.com/books?id=Hc3HabBQsdsC&pg=PA46#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Roman Catholic]] historian [[Edward Flannery]] distinguished four varieties of antisemitism:{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p={{page needed|date=July 2022}}}}
* Political and economic antisemitism, giving as examples [[Cicero]]{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=16}} and [[Charles Lindbergh]];{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=260}}
* [[Religious antisemitism|Theological or religious antisemitism]], also called "traditional antisemitism"<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Sherwood |first1=Harriet |date=11 April 2018 |title=Traditional antisemitism is back, global study finds |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/11/traditional-antisemitism-is-back-global-study-finds |access-date=17 October 2023 |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=17 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017211114/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/11/traditional-antisemitism-is-back-global-study-finds |url-status=live}}</ref> and sometimes known as [[anti-Judaism]];{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=289}}
* Nationalistic antisemitism, citing [[Voltaire]] and other [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] thinkers, who attacked Jews for supposedly having certain characteristics, such as greed and arrogance, and for observing customs such as [[kashrut]] and [[Shabbat]];{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=176}}
* [[Racial antisemitism]], with its extreme form resulting in [[the Holocaust]] by the [[Nazi]]s.{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=179}}
{{Quote box
|quote=[[Antisemitism in Europe|Europe has blamed the Jews]] for an encyclopedia of [[sin]]s.<br/>[[Catholic Church|The Church]] blamed the Jews for [[Jewish deicide|killing Jesus]]; [[Voltaire]] blamed the Jews for [[Jewish Christian|inventing Christianity]]. In the febrile minds of anti-Semites, Jews were [[Usury#Judaism|usurers]] and [[Well poisoning#Medieval accusations against Jews|well-poisoners]] and [[Persecution of Jews during the Black Death|spreaders of disease]]. Jews were the creators of both [[Jewish Bolshevism|communism]] and [[Economic antisemitism|capitalism]]; they were [[Jewish quarter (diaspora)|clannish]] but also [[Rootless cosmopolitan|cosmopolitan]]; cowardly and warmongering; self-righteous moralists and defilers of culture.<br/>Ideologues and demagogues of many permutations have understood the Jews to be a singularly malevolent force standing between the world and its perfection.
|author=[[Jeffrey Goldberg]], 2015.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Goldberg |first1=Jeffrey |author1-link=Jeffrey Goldberg |title=Is It Time for the Jews to Leave Europe?|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2015/04/is-it-time-for-the-jews-to-leave-europe/386279/ |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |date=April 2015 |access-date=21 April 2023 |archive-date=21 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230421112016/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2015/04/is-it-time-for-the-jews-to-leave-europe/386279/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
|source=
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[[Louis Harap]], writing in the 1980s, separated "economic antisemitism" and merges "political" and "nationalistic" antisemitism into "ideological antisemitism". Harap also adds a category of "social antisemitism".<ref>{{cite book |title=Creative awakening: the Jewish presence in twentieth-century American literature, 1900-1940s |first=Louis |last=Harap |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |year=1987 |page=24 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mAPvam-n_DYC&pg=PA24 |isbn=978-0-313-25386-7 |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000143/https://books.google.com/books?id=mAPvam-n_DYC&pg=PA24 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* Religious (Jew as Christ-killer),
* Economic (Jew as banker, usurer, money-obsessed),
* Social (Jew as social inferior, "pushy", vulgar, therefore excluded from personal contact),
* Racist (Jews as an inferior "race"),
* Ideological (Jews regarded as subversive or revolutionary),
* Cultural (Jews regarded as undermining the moral and structural fiber of civilization).

===Religious antisemitism===
{{Main|Religious antisemitism}}
{{See also|Anti-Judaism|Antisemitism in Christianity|Antisemitism in Islam}}
[[File:Execution of Mariana de Carabajal.jpg|thumb|The execution of [[Francisca Nuñez de Carabajal|Mariana de Carabajal]] (converted Jew), accused of a relapse into Judaism, [[Mexico City]], 1601]]

[[Religious antisemitism]], also known as anti-Judaism, is antipathy towards Jews because of their perceived religious beliefs. In theory, antisemitism and attacks against individual Jews would stop if Jews stopped practicing Judaism or changed their public faith, especially by [[Religious conversion|conversion]] to the official or right religion. However, in some cases, discrimination continues after conversion, as in the case of ''[[Marranos]]'' (Christianized Jews in Spain and Portugal) in the late 15th century and 16th century, who were suspected of secretly practising Judaism or Jewish customs.{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|pp=135–141}}

Although the origins of antisemitism are rooted in the Judeo-Christian conflict, other forms of antisemitism have developed in modern times. Frederick Schweitzer asserts that "most scholars ignore the Christian foundation on which the modern antisemitic edifice rests and invoke political antisemitism, cultural antisemitism, racism or racial antisemitism, economic antisemitism, and the like."<ref>{{cite book |title=A concise history of American antisemitism |first=Robert |last=Michael |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |year=2005 |page=vii |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5G3feplFBYUC&pg=PR7 |isbn=978-0-7425-4313-3 |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001047/https://books.google.com/books?id=5G3feplFBYUC&pg=PR7#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref> William Nicholls draws a distinction between religious antisemitism and modern antisemitism based on racial or ethnic grounds: "The dividing line was the possibility of effective conversion [...] a Jew ceased to be a Jew upon [[baptism]]." From the perspective of racial antisemitism, however, "the assimilated Jew was still a Jew, even after baptism.[...] From the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] onward, it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards Jews[...] Once Jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance, without leaving behind the old Christian hostility towards Jews, the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable, even before explicitly racist doctrines appear."<ref>{{cite book |last=Nicholls |first=William |author-link= |date=1993 |title=Christian Antisemitism: A History of Hate |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cg00E0gk9PQC |location=[[Lanham, Maryland]] |publisher=[[Jason Aronson]] / [[Rowman & Littlefield]] |page=314 |isbn=0-87668-398-7}}</ref>

Some Christians such as the Catholic priest [[Ernest Jouin]], who published the first French translation of the ''Protocols'', combined religious and racial antisemitism, as in his statement that "From the triple viewpoint of race, of nationality, and of religion, the Jew has become the enemy of humanity."{{sfnp|Michael|2008|p=171}} The virulent antisemitism of [[Édouard Drumont]], one of the most widely read Catholic writers in France during the Dreyfus Affair, likewise combined religious and racial antisemitism.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Arnal |first1=Oscar L. |title=Ambivalent Alliance: The Catholic Church and the Action Française, 1899–1939 |date=1985 |publisher=[[University of Pittsburgh Press]] |page=32 |isbn=978-0822985631}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Rubenstein |first1=Richard L. |title=Approaches to Auschwitz: The Holocaust and Its Legacy |date=2003 |publisher=[[Westminster John Knox Press]] |page=81 |isbn=978-0664223533}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Brustein |first1=William |title=Roots of Hate: Anti-Semitism in Europe Before the Holocaust |date=2003 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=60 |isbn=978-0521774789}}</ref> Drumont founded the [[Antisemitic League of France]].

===Economic antisemitism===
{{Main|Economic antisemitism}}
<!-- [[File:The Kingdom of Shylock.jpg|thumb|right|Front cover of ''The Kingdom of Shylock'' (1917), a pamphlet by Australian politician [[Frank Anstey]] asserting Jewish control of banking and finance]]
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[[File:"Nebuď služobníkom žida"—Slovak propaganda poster.jpg|thumb|alt=Man kissing feet of another man with hooked nose, dropping money on his head|A World War II-era [[Antisemitism in Slovakia|Slovak]] propaganda poster exhorts readers not to "be a servant to the Jew".]]
The underlying premise of economic antisemitism is that Jews perform harmful economic activities or that economic activities become harmful when they are performed by Jews.<ref name=MeyerBrenner220>{{cite book |first1=Michael |last1=Meyer |first2=Michael |last2=Brenner |title=German-Jewish History in Modern Times: Integration in dispute, 1871–1918 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=1998 |page=220 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HFFoSglsovoC&pg=PA220 |isbn=978-0-231-07476-6 |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001150/https://books.google.com/books?id=HFFoSglsovoC&pg=PA220#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref>

Linking Jews and money underpins the most damaging and lasting [[antisemitic canard]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jews & Money – The story of a stereotype |url=http://www.adl.org/Anti_semitism/jewsandmoney/default.asp |access-date=18 April 2011 |website=[[Anti-Defamation League]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110228220753/http://www.adl.org/Anti_semitism/jewsandmoney/default.asp |archive-date=28 February 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Antisemites claim that Jews control the world finances, a theory promoted in the fraudulent ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' and later repeated by [[Henry Ford]] and his ''[[The Dearborn Independent]]''. In the modern era, such myths continue to be spread in books such as ''[[The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews]]'' published by the [[Nation of Islam]] and on the internet.

[[Derek Penslar]] writes that there are two components to the financial canards:<ref>Penslar p. 5</ref>{{Incomplete short citation|date=July 2022}}
:a) Jews are savages that "are temperamentally incapable of performing honest labor"
:b) Jews are "leaders of a financial cabal seeking world domination"

[[Abraham Foxman]] describes six facets of the financial canards:
#All Jews are wealthy{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=84}}
#Jews are stingy and greedy{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=89}}
#Powerful Jews control the business world{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=93}}
#Jewish religion emphasizes profit and materialism{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=98}}
#It is okay for Jews to cheat non-Jews{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=102}}
#Jews use their power to benefit "their own kind"{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=105}}

[[Gerald Krefetz]] summarizes the myth as "[Jews] control the banks, the money supply, the economy, and businesses—of the community, of the country, of the world".<ref>Krefetz p. 45</ref>{{Incomplete short citation|date=July 2022}} Krefetz gives, as illustrations, many slurs and proverbs (in several different languages) which suggest that Jews are stingy, or greedy, or miserly, or aggressive bargainers.<ref>Krefetz pp. 6–7</ref>{{Incomplete short citation|date=July 2022}} During the nineteenth century, Jews were described as "scurrilous, stupid, and tight-fisted", but after the [[Jewish Emancipation]] and the rise of Jews to the middle- or upper-class in Europe were portrayed as "clever, devious, and manipulative financiers out to dominate [world finances]".<ref>Krefetz p. 47</ref>{{Incomplete short citation|date=July 2022}}

[[Léon Poliakov]] asserts that economic antisemitism is not a distinct form of antisemitism, but merely a manifestation of theologic antisemitism (because, without the theological causes of economic antisemitism, there would be no economic antisemitism). In opposition to this view, Derek Penslar contends that in the modern era, economic antisemitism is "distinct and nearly constant" but theological antisemitism is "often subdued".<ref>Penslar p. 12 {{Incomplete short citation|date=July 2022}}</ref>

An academic study by Francesco D'Acunto, Marcel Prokopczuk, and Michael Weber showed that people who live in areas of Germany that contain the most brutal history of antisemitic persecution are more likely to be distrustful of finance in general. Therefore, they tended to invest less money in the stock market and make poor financial decisions. The study concluded, "that the persecution of minorities reduces not only the long-term wealth of the persecuted but of the persecutors as well."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=D'Acunto |first1=Francesco |first2=Marcel |last2=Prokopczuk |first3=Michael |last3=Weber |date=2015 |url=http://faculty.haas.berkeley.edu/francesco_dacunto/papers/AntisemFinW_Jun14.pdf |title=Distrust in Finance Lingers: Jewish Persecution and Households' Investments |journal=Meeting Papers, Society for Economic Dynamics |number=26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141107191848/http://faculty.haas.berkeley.edu/francesco_dacunto/papers/AntisemFinW_Jun14.pdf |archive-date=7 November 2014 |via=Haas School of Business |access-date=20 October 2014}}</ref>

===Racial antisemitism===
{{Main|Racial antisemitism}}

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-267-0111-36, Russland, russische Kriegsgefangene (Juden).jpg|thumb|A Jewish Soviet soldier taken prisoner by the German Army, August 1941. At least 50,000 Jewish soldiers were shot after selection.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lewy |first=Guenter |author-link=Guenter Lewy |title=Perpetrators: The World of the Holocaust Killers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iDoqDwAAQBAJ&q=50,000+red+army+Jewish+soldiers+were+shot&pg=PA42 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2017 |page=42 |isbn=9780190661137 |access-date=14 October 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001159/https://books.google.com/books?id=iDoqDwAAQBAJ&q=50,000+red+army+Jewish+soldiers+were+shot&pg=PA42#v=snippet&q=50%2C000%20red%20army%20Jewish%20soldiers%20were%20shot&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
Racial antisemitism is prejudice against [[Jew]]s as a racial/ethnic group, rather than [[Judaism]] as a religion.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1603&letter=A&search=Anti-semitism |title=Anti-Semitism |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921041255/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1603&letter=A&search=anti-semitism |archive-date=21 September 2011 |encyclopedia=[[Jewish Encyclopedia]]}}</ref>

Racial antisemitism is the idea that the Jews are a distinct and inferior race compared to their host nations. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, it gained mainstream acceptance as part of the [[eugenics]] movement, which categorized non-Europeans as inferior. It more specifically claimed that Northern Europeans, or "Aryans", were superior. Racial antisemites saw the Jews as part of a Semitic race and emphasized their non-European origins and culture. They saw Jews as beyond redemption even if they converted to the majority religion.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jesus – The Jewish religion in the 1st century |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jesus/The-Jewish-religion-in-the-1st-century |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=31 August 2022 |archive-date=11 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201211142824/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jesus/The-Jewish-religion-in-the-1st-century |url-status=live}}</ref>

Racial antisemitism replaced the hatred of Judaism with the hatred of Jews as a group. In the context of the [[Industrial Revolution]], following the [[Jewish Emancipation]], Jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility. With the decreasing role of religion in public life tempering religious antisemitism, a combination of growing [[nationalism]], the rise of eugenics, and resentment at the socio-economic success of the Jews led to the newer, and more virulent, racist antisemitism.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007171 |title=Antisemitism in History: Racial Antisemitism, 1875–1945 |website=[[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]] |access-date=15 September 2017 |archive-date=23 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823210503/https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007171 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In the early 19th century, a number of laws enabling the emancipation of the Jews were enacted in Western European countries.<ref>{{cite book |first=Paul |last=Webster |date=2001 |title=Petain's Crime: The Full Story of French Collaboration |location=London |publisher=[[Pan Books]] |isbn=978-0330487856 |pages=13, 15}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Dan |last=Cohn-Sherbok |author-link=Dan Cohn-Sherbok |date=2006 |title=The Paradox of Anti-Semitism |publisher=[[Continuum International Publishing Group|Continuum]] |isbn=978-0826488961 |pages=44–46}}</ref> The old laws restricting them to [[ghetto]]s, as well as the many laws that limited their property rights, rights of worship and occupation, were rescinded. Despite this, traditional discrimination and hostility to Jews on religious grounds persisted and was supplemented by [[racial antisemitism]], encouraged by the work of racial theorists such as [[Joseph Arthur de Gobineau]] and particularly his ''Essay on the Inequality of the Human Race'' of 1853–1855. [[Nationalist]] agendas based on [[ethnicity]], known as [[ethnonationalism]], usually excluded the Jews from the national community as an alien race.{{sfnp|Beller|2007|p=64}} Allied to this were theories of [[Social Darwinism]], which stressed a putative conflict between higher and lower races of human beings. Such theories, usually posited by northern Europeans, advocated the superiority of white [[Aryan]]s to [[Semitic people|Semitic]] Jews.{{sfnp|Beller|2007|pp=57–59}}

===Political antisemitism===
{{Quote box
|quote=The whole problem of the Jews exists only in nation states, for here their energy and higher intelligence, their accumulated capital of spirit and will, gathered from generation to generation through a long schooling in suffering, must become so preponderant as to arouse mass envy and hatred. In almost all contemporary nations, therefore – in direct proportion to the degree to which they act up nationalistically – the literary obscenity of leading the Jews to slaughter as scapegoats of every conceivable public and internal misfortune is spreading.
|author=[[Friedrich Nietzsche]]
|source=1886, [MA 1 475]<ref>{{cite book |title=Nietzsche, der Philosoph und Politiker |language=de |trans-title=Nietzsche, the Philosopher and Politician |pages=8, 63, ''et passim'' |first=Alfred |last=Baeumler |author-link=Alfred Baeumler |publisher=[[Reclam]] |year=1931 |asin=B002803IJK}}</ref>
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[[William I. Brustein|William Brustein]] defines political antisemitism as hostility toward Jews based on the belief that Jews seek national or world power. Yisrael Gutman characterizes political antisemitism as tending to "lay responsibility on the Jews for defeats and political economic crises" while seeking to "exploit opposition and resistance to Jewish influence as elements in political party platforms."<ref>{{cite book |title=Genocide, critical issues of the Holocaust: a companion to the film, Genocide |publisher=Behrman House, Inc |year=1983 |page=100 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DcdiVs9lwvcC&pg=PA100 |isbn=978-0-940646-04-9 |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001125/https://books.google.com/books?id=DcdiVs9lwvcC&pg=PA100 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Derek J. Penslar]] wrote, "Political antisemitism identified the Jews as responsible for all the anxiety-provoking social forces that characterized [[modernity]]."<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Derek J. Penslar |last=Penslar |first=Derek J. |chapter=Introduction |title=Contemporary Antisemitism: Canada and the World |editor1-first=Derek J. |editor1-last=Penslar |editor2-first=Michael R. |editor2-last=Marrus |editor3-first=Janice Gross |editor3-last=Stein |publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]] |date=2005 |pages=3–12 |doi=10.3138/9781442673342 |isbn=9781442673342}}</ref>

According to Viktor Karády, political antisemitism became widespread after the legal emancipation of the Jews and sought to reverse some of the consequences of that emancipation.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Jews of Europe in the modern era: a socio-historical outline |first=Viktor |last=Karády |publisher=[[Central European University Press]] |year=2004|page=348 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4hGg9rMQpEEC&pg=PA351 |isbn=978-963-9241-52-7 |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001153/https://books.google.com/books?id=4hGg9rMQpEEC&pg=PA351#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Cultural antisemitism===
Louis Harap defines cultural antisemitism as "that species of anti-Semitism that charges the Jews with corrupting a given culture and attempting to supplant or succeeding in supplanting the preferred culture with a uniform, crude, "Jewish" culture."<ref>{{cite book |title=Creative awakening: the Jewish presence in twentieth-century American literature |first=Louis |last=Harap |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |year=1987 |page=76 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mAPvam-n_DYC&pg=PA76 |isbn=978-0-313-25386-7 |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000109/https://books.google.com/books?id=mAPvam-n_DYC&pg=PA76 |url-status=live}}</ref> Similarly, [[Eric Kandel]] characterizes cultural antisemitism as being based on the idea of "Jewishness" as a "religious or cultural tradition that is acquired through learning, through distinctive traditions and education." According to Kandel, this form of antisemitism views Jews as possessing "unattractive psychological and social characteristics that are acquired through acculturation."<ref name=Kandel30>{{cite book |title=In search of memory: the emergence of a new science of mind |first=Eric R. |last=Kandel |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |year=2007 |page=30 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PFnRwWXzypgC&pg=PA30 |isbn=978-0-393-32937-7 |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000111/https://books.google.com/books?id=PFnRwWXzypgC&pg=PA30#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref> Niewyk and Nicosia characterize cultural antisemitism as focusing on and condemning "the Jews' aloofness from the societies in which they live."<ref>{{cite book |title=The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust |first1=Donald L. |last1=Niewyk |first2=Francis R. |last2=Nicosia |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=2003 |page=215 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z-6vKBHggVwC&pg=PA215 |isbn=978-0-231-11201-7 |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000044/https://books.google.com/books?id=z-6vKBHggVwC&pg=PA215#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref>
An important feature of cultural antisemitism is that it considers the negative attributes of Judaism to be redeemable by education or by religious conversion.<ref name=Kandel3031>{{cite book |title=In search of memory: the emergence of a new science of mind |first=Eric R. |last=Kandel |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |year=2007 |pages=30–31 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PFnRwWXzypgC&pg=PA30 |isbn=978-0-393-32937-7 |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000111/https://books.google.com/books?id=PFnRwWXzypgC&pg=PA30#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Conspiracy theories===
{{See also|List of conspiracy theories#Antisemitic conspiracy theories}}
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[[Holocaust denial]] and [[Jewish conspiracy]] theories are also considered forms of antisemitism.<ref name="antisemitic"/><ref>{{bulleted list|
|{{Cite web |last=Mathis |first=Andrew E. |url=http://www.phdn.org/archives/holocaust-history.org/denial/abc-clio/ |title=Holocaust Denial, a Definition |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213171733/https://phdn.org/archives/holocaust-history.org/denial/abc-clio/ |archive-date=13 February 2021 |website=[[The Holocaust History Project]] |date=2 July 2004 |access-date=15 August 2016}}
|{{cite book |first1=Michael |last1=Shermer |first2=Alex |last2=Grobman |title=Denying History: who Says the Holocaust Never Happened and why Do They Say It? |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |date=2000 |isbn=0-520-23469-3 |page=106}}
|{{cite web |url=http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw2000-1/usa.htm |title=Antisemitism and Racism Country Reports: United States |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628184616/http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw2000-1/usa.htm |archive-date=28 June 2011 |website=[[Stephen Roth Institute]] |date=2000 |access-date=17 May 2007}}
|{{harvp|Lipstadt|1994|p=27}}
|{{Cite web |url=http://www.adl.org/holocaust/theory.asp |title=Introduction: Denial as Anti-Semitism |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604020743/http://www.adl.org/holocaust/theory.asp |archive-date=4 June 2011 |series=Holocaust Denial: An Online Guide to Exposing and Combating Anti-Semitic Propaganda |website=[[Anti-Defamation League]] |date=2001 |access-date=12 June 2007}}
|{{cite book |first=Lawrence N. |last=Powell |title=Troubled Memory: Anne Levy, the Holocaust, and David Duke's Louisiana |publisher=[[University of North Carolina Press]] |date=2000 |isbn=0-8078-5374-7 |page=445}}
}}</ref> [[Zoological conspiracy theories]] have been propagated by Arab media and Arabic language websites, alleging a "Zionist plot" behind the use of animals to attack civilians or to conduct espionage.<ref>{{cite news |last=Tait |first=Robert |date=10 December 2012 |title='Vulture spying for Israel' caught in Sudan |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/israel/9734674/Vulture-spying-for-Israel-caught-in-Sudan.html |access-date=11 January 2014 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/israel/9734674/Vulture-spying-for-Israel-caught-in-Sudan.html |archive-date=10 January 2022}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

===New antisemitism===
{{Main|New antisemitism}}
[[Image:Protests Edinburgh 10 1 2009 5.JPG|right|thumb|A sign held at a protest in [[Edinburgh]], Scotland, January 2009]]
Starting in the 1990s, some scholars have advanced the concept of [[new antisemitism]], coming simultaneously from the [[Left-wing politics|left]], the [[Right-wing politics|right]], and [[Islamism|radical Islam]], which tends to focus on opposition to the creation of a Jewish homeland in the [[State of Israel]],<ref name="New-AS-List">{{bulleted list|
|{{cite book |last=Chesler |first=Phyllis |author-link=Phyllis Chesler |title=The New Antisemitism: The Current Crisis and What We Must Do About It |publisher=Jossey-Bass |date=2003 |pages=158–159, 181}}
|{{cite web |last=Kinsella |first=Warren |author-link=Warren Kinsella |url=http://warrenkinsella.com/oldsite/old/words_extremism_nas.htm |title=The New antisemitism |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120729171012/http://warrenkinsella.com/oldsite/old/words_extremism_nas.htm |archive-date=29 July 2012 |access-date=5 March 2006}}
|{{cite news |last=Doward |first=Jamie |date=8 August 2004 |url=http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,6903,1278580,00.html |title=Jews predict record level of hate attacks: Militant Islamic media accused of stirring up new wave of antisemitism |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080115132604/http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,6903,1278580,00.html |archive-date=15 January 2008 |work=[[The Observer]]}}
|{{cite book |last=Endelman |first=Todd M. |author-link=Todd Endelman |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lmym8zUBCKcC&pg=PA65 |chapter=Antisemitism in Western Europe Today |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117161939/https://books.google.com/books?id=Lmym8zUBCKcC&pg=PA65 |archive-date=17 November 2022 |title=Contemporary Antisemitism: Canada and the World |publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]] |date=2005 |pages=65–79 |isbn=978-0-8020-3931-6}}
|{{cite book |last=Matas |first=David |author-link=David Matas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DYR7SqcMe9gC&pg=PA30 |title=Aftershock: Anti-Zionism and Antisemitism |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117161942/https://books.google.com/books?id=DYR7SqcMe9gC&pg=PA30 |archive-date=17 November 2022 |publisher=Dundurn Press |date=2005 |pages=30–31 |isbn=978-1-55002-553-8}}
|{{cite book |last=Wistrich |first=Robert S. |author-link=Robert S. Wistrich |title=From Ambivalence to Betrayal: The Left, the Jews, and Israel |series=Studies in Antisemitism |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |date=2012}}{{pn|date=February 2025}}
}}</ref> and they argue that the language of [[anti-Zionism]] and [[criticism of Israel]] are used to attack Jews more broadly. In this view, the proponents of the new concept believe that criticisms of Israel and [[Zionism]] are often disproportionate in degree and unique in kind, and they attribute this to antisemitism.<ref name=":0">[https://web.archive.org/web/20031205153139/http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/display.article?id=2791 "Antiglobalism's Jewish Problem"] in [[Ron Rosenbaum|Rosenbaum, Ron]] (ed.). ''Those who forget the past: The Question of Anti-Semitism'', [[Random House]] 2004, p.&nbsp;272.</ref>

Jewish scholar [[Gustavo Perednik]] posited in 2004 that anti-Zionism in itself represents a form of discrimination against Jews, in that it singles out Jewish national aspirations as an illegitimate and racist endeavor, and "proposes actions that would result in the death of millions of Jews".<ref name=":0" /> Proponents of this theory assert that the new antisemitism deploys traditional antisemitic motifs, including older motifs such as the [[blood libel]].<ref name="New-AS-List"/>

Critics of the concept view it as trivializing the meaning of antisemitism, and as [[Weaponization of antisemitism|exploiting antisemitism in order to silence debate]] and to deflect attention from legitimate criticism of the State of Israel, and, by associating anti-Zionism with antisemitism, misusing it to taint anyone opposed to Israeli actions and policies.<ref>{{cite news |author-link=Brian Klug |last=Klug |first=Brian |url=http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20040202&s=klug |title=The Myth of the New Anti-Semitism |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090701082702/http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20040202&s=klug |archive-date=1 July 2009 |work=[[The Nation (U.S. periodical)|The Nation]] |date=15 January 2004 |access-date=9 January 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author-link=Michael Lerner (rabbi) |last=Lerner |first=Michael |url=http://baltimorechronicle.com/2007/020207LERNER.shtml |title=There Is No New Anti-Semitism |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110126094118/http://baltimorechronicle.com/2007/020207LERNER.shtml |archive-date=26 January 2011 |date=5 February 2007 |access-date=6 February 2007}}</ref>