Editing Altruism (section)

===Psychology===
The ''International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences'' defines ''psychological altruism'' as "a motivational state to increase another's welfare". Psychological altruism is contrasted with ''psychological egoism'', which refers to the motivation to increase one's welfare.<ref name="encyclopedia">{{cite encyclopedia|article=Altruism|encyclopedia = International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences|editor-first= William A. Jr. |editor-last = Darity|edition= 2nd |volume = 1|location = Detroit|publisher = Macmillan Reference USA|date= 2008|pages = 87–88}}</ref> In keeping with this, research in real-world altruists, including altruistic kidney donors, bone marrow donors, humanitarian aid workers, and [[hero]]ic rescuers findings that these altruists are primarily distinguished from other adults by unselfish traits and decision-making patterns. This suggests that human altruism reflects genuinely high valuation of others' outcomes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Rhoads |first1=Shawn A. |last2=Vekaria |first2=Kruti M. |last3=O’Connell |first3=Katherine |last4=Elizabeth |first4=Hannah S. |last5=Rand |first5=David G. |last6=Kozak Williams |first6=Megan N. |last7=Marsh |first7=Abigail A. |date=31 March 2023 |title=Unselfish traits and social decision-making patterns characterize six populations of real-world extraordinary altruists |journal=Nature Communications|volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=1807 |doi=10.1038/s41467-023-37283-5 |issn=2041-1723|doi-access=free |pmid=37002205 |pmc=10066349 }}</ref>

There has been some debate on whether humans are capable of psychological altruism.<ref name="batson3">{{cite book|last=Batson|first=C.|year=2011|title=Altruism in humans|location=New York, N.Y. U.S.|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> Some definitions specify a self-sacrificial nature to altruism and a lack of external rewards for altruistic behaviors.<ref name="prosocial">{{cite book|last=Batson|first= C. Daniel |date=2012|chapter = A history of prosocial behavior research |editor1-first = Arie W.|editor1-last= Kruglanski|editor2-link=Wolfgang Stroebe|editor2-first=Wolfgang|editor2-last = Stroebe|title = Handbook of the history of social psychology |pages = 243–264|location= New York, NY |publisher = Psychology Press|isbn =978-1-84872-868-4 |chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=MOlUSV2koMcC&pg=PA242}}</ref> However, because altruism ultimately benefits the self in many cases, the selflessness of altruistic acts is difficult to prove. The [[social exchange theory]] postulates that altruism only exists when the benefits outweigh the costs to the self.<ref name="noaltruism">{{cite journal |last1=Maner |first1=Jon K. |last2=Luce |first2=Carol L. |last3=Neuberg |first3=Steven L. |last4=Cialdini |first4=Robert B. |last5=Brown |first5=Stephanie |last6=Sagarin |first6=Brad J. |title=The Effects of Perspective Taking on Motivations for Helping: Still No Evidence for Altruism |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin |date=November 2002 |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=1601–1610 |doi=10.1177/014616702237586 }}</ref>

[[Daniel Batson]], a psychologist, examined this question and argued against the social exchange theory. He identified four significant motives: to ultimately benefit the self (egoism), to ultimately benefit the other person (altruism), to benefit a group (collectivism), or to uphold a moral principle ([[principlism]]). Altruism that ultimately serves selfish gains is thus differentiated from selfless altruism, but the general conclusion has been that [[empathy]]-induced altruism can be genuinely selfless.<ref name="baston2">{{cite book|last1=Batson|first1= C. Daniel|last2= Ahmad|first2= Nadia|last3= Stocks|first3= E. L. |date = 2011|chapter = Four forms of prosocial motivation: Egoism, altruism, collectivism, and principlism|editor-first = David|editor-last =Dunning|title = Social motivation |pages = 103–126|location= New York, NY |publisher = Psychology Press|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=gOB4AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA103|isbn = 978-1-136-84720-2}}</ref> The ''[[empathy-altruism]] hypothesis'' states that psychological altruism exists and is evoked by the empathic desire to help someone suffering. Feelings of empathic concern are contrasted with personal distress, which compels people to reduce their unpleasant emotions and increase their positive ones by helping someone in need. Empathy is thus not selfless since altruism works either as a way to avoid those negative, unpleasant feelings and have positive, pleasant feelings when triggered by others' need for help or as a way to gain social reward or avoid social punishment by helping. People with empathic concern help others in distress even when exposure to the situation could be easily avoided, whereas those lacking in empathic concern avoid allowing it unless it is difficult or impossible to avoid exposure to another's suffering.<ref name="encyclopedia"/>

Helping behavior is seen in humans from about two years old when a toddler can understand subtle emotional cues.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Svetlova|first1=M.|last2=Nichols|first2=S. R. |last3= Brownell|first3=C. A.|year=2010|title=Toddlers prosocial behavior: From instrumental to empathic to altruistic helping|journal=Child Development |volume=81|issue=6|pages=1814–1827|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01512.x|pmid=21077866|pmc=3088085}}</ref>

[[File:Peace Corps Volunteer swearing in Cambodia, 2007.jpg|thumb|[[Peace Corps]] trainees swearing in as volunteers in [[Cambodia]], 4 April 2007]]
In psychological research on altruism, studies often observe altruism as demonstrated through [[prosocial behavior]]s such as [[Helping behavior|helping]], comforting, [[sharing]], cooperation, [[philanthropy]], and [[community service]].<ref name="prosocial"/> People are most likely to help if they recognize that a person is in need and feel personal responsibility for reducing the person's distress. The number of bystanders witnessing pain or suffering affects the likelihood of helping (the ''[[Bystander effect]]''). More significant numbers of bystanders decrease individual feelings of responsibility.<ref name="encyclopedia"/><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hudson | first1 = James M. | last2 = Bruckman | first2 = Amy S. | year = 2004 | title = The Bystander Effect: A Lens for Understanding Patterns of Participation | journal = Journal of the Learning Sciences | volume = 13 | issue = 2| pages = 165–195 | doi = 10.1207/s15327809jls1302_2 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.72.4881 | s2cid = 16442298 }}</ref> However, a witness with a high level of empathic concern is likely to assume personal responsibility entirely regardless of the number of bystanders.<ref name="encyclopedia"/>

Many studies have observed the effects of [[volunteering|volunteerism]] (as a form of altruism) on happiness and health and have consistently found that those who exhibit volunteerism also have better current and future health and well-being.<ref name="volunteer1">{{cite journal|last1=Musick|first1=M. A.|last2=Wilson|first2=J.|year=2003|title=Volunteering and depression: The role of psychological and social resources in different age groups|journal=Social Science & Medicine|volume=56|issue=2|pages=259–269|doi=10.1016/S0277-9536(02)00025-4|pmid=12473312}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Koenig | first1 = L. B. | last2 = McGue | first2 = M. | last3 = Krueger | first3 = R. F. | last4 = Bouchard | year = 2007 | title = Religiousness, antisocial behavior, and altruism: Genetic and environmental mediation | journal = Journal of Personality | volume = 75 | issue = 2| pages = 265–290 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2007.00439.x | pmid = 17359239 }}</ref> In a study of older adults, those who volunteered had higher life satisfaction and will to live, and less [[Depression (mood)|depression]], [[anxiety (mood)|anxiety]], and [[somatization]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hunter|first1=K. I.|last2=Hunter|first2=M. W.|year=1980|title=Psychosocial differences between elderly volunteers and non-volunteers|journal=The International Journal of Aging & Human Development|volume=12|issue=3|pages=205–213|doi=10.2190/0H6V-QPPP-7JK4-LR38|pmid=7216525|s2cid=42991434}}</ref> Volunteerism and helping behavior have not only been shown to improve mental health but physical health and longevity as well, attributable to the activity and social integration it encourages.<ref name="volunteer1"/><ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last1 = Kayloe | first1 = J. C. | last2 = Krause | first2 = M. | year = 1985 | title = RARE FIND: or The value of volunteerism | journal = Psychosocial Rehabilitation Journal | volume = 8 | issue = 4| pages = 49–56 | doi=10.1037/h0099659}}
|2={{cite journal|last1=Brown|first1=S. L.|last2=Brown|first2=R.|last3=House|first3=J. S.|last4=Smith|first4=D. M.|year=2008|title=Coping with spousal loss: Potential buffering effects of self-reported helping behavior|journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin|volume=34|issue=6|pages=849–861|doi=10.1177/0146167208314972|pmid=18344495|s2cid=42983453}}
}}</ref><ref name="volunteer5">{{cite journal|last1=Post|first1=S. G.|year=2005|title=Altruism, Happiness, and Health: It's Good to Be Good|journal=International Journal of Behavioral Medicine|volume=12|issue=2|pages=66–77|doi=10.1207/s15327558ijbm1202_4|pmid=15901215|citeseerx=10.1.1.485.8406|s2cid=12544814}}</ref> One study examined the physical health of mothers who volunteered over 30 years and found that 52% of those who did not belong to a volunteer organization experienced a major illness while only 36% of those who did volunteer experienced one.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moen |first1=P. |last2=Dempster-Mcclain |first2=D. |last3=Williams |first3=R. M. |s2cid=4828775 |year=1992|title=Successful aging: A life-course perspective on women's multiple roles and health|journal=American Journal of Sociology|volume=97|issue=6|pages=1612–1638|doi=10.1086/229941}}</ref> A study on adults aged 55 and older found that during the four-year study period, people who volunteered for two or more organizations had a 63% lower likelihood of dying. After controlling for prior health status, it was determined that volunteerism accounted for a 44% reduction in mortality.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Oman|first1=D.|last2=Thoresen|first2=C. E.|last3=McMahon|first3=K.|year=1999|title=Volunteerism and mortality among the community-dwelling elderly|journal=Journal of Health Psychology|volume=4|issue=3|pages=301–316|doi=10.1177/135910539900400301|pmid=22021599|doi-access=free}}</ref> Merely being aware of kindness in oneself and others is also associated with greater well-being. A study that asked participants to count each act of kindness they performed for one week significantly enhanced their subjective happiness. Happier people are kinder and more grateful, kinder people are happier and more grateful and more grateful people are happier and kinder, the study suggests.<ref name="countingkindness">{{cite journal|last1=Otake|first1=K.|last2=Shimai|first2=S.|last3=Tanaka-Matsumi|first3=J.|last4=Otsui|first4=K.|last5=Fredrickson|first5=B. L.|year=2006|title=Happy people become happier through kindness: A counting kindnesses intervention|journal=Journal of Happiness Studies|volume=7|issue=3|pages=361–375|doi=10.1007/s10902-005-3650-z|pmid=17356687|pmc=1820947}}</ref>

While research supports the idea that altruistic acts bring about happiness, it has also been found to work in the opposite direction—that happier people are also kinder. The relationship between altruistic behavior and happiness is bidirectional. Studies found that [[generosity]] increases linearly from sad to happy affective states.<ref name="moodandgenerosity">{{cite journal|last1=Underwood|first1=B.|last2=Froming|first2=W. J.|last3=Moore|first3=B. S.|year=1977|title=Mood, attention, and altruism: A search for mediating variables|journal=Developmental Psychology|volume=13|issue=5|pages=541–542|doi=10.1037/0012-1649.13.5.541}}</ref>

Feeling over-taxed by the needs of others has negative effects on health and happiness.<ref name="volunteer5"/> For example, one study on volunteerism found that feeling overwhelmed by others' demands had an even stronger negative effect on mental health than helping had a positive one (although positive effects were still significant).<ref name="overwhelmed">{{cite journal|last1=Schwartz|first1=C.|last2=Meisenhelder|first2=J.|last3=Ma|first3=Y.|last4=Reed|first4=G.|year=2003|title=Altruistic Social Interest Behaviors Are Associated With Better Mental Health|journal=Psychosomatic Medicine|volume=65|issue=5|pages=778–785|doi=10.1097/01.PSY.0000079378.39062.D4|pmid=14508020|citeseerx=10.1.1.529.7780|s2cid=20644442}}</ref>

Older humans were found to have higher altruism.<ref name="w730">{{cite journal | last1=Sparrow | first1=Erika P. | last2=Swirsky | first2=Liyana T. | last3=Kudus | first3=Farrah | last4=Spaniol | first4=Julia | title=Aging and altruism: A meta-analysis. | journal=Psychology and Aging | publisher=American Psychological Association (APA) | volume=36 | issue=1 | year=2021 | issn=1939-1498 | doi=10.1037/pag0000447 | pages=49–56| pmid=33705185 }}</ref>