Editing Alien and Sedition Acts (section)

==Invocations of the Alien Enemies Act==
Following the resolution of the Quasi War in 1800, and up until the second administration of President Trump in 2025, the Alien Enemies Act was invoked by the United States executive on three occasions.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Blakemore |first=Erin |date=2025-03-27 |title=What is the Alien Enemies Act? Here's how the 1798 law was invoked in the past. |url=https://www.npr.org/2025/03/16/g-s1-54154/alien-enemies-el-salvador-trump |access-date=2025-04-14 |work=National Geographic}}</ref>

=== War of 1812 ===
President [[James Madison]] invoked the act against British nationals during the [[War of 1812]], and ordered them to report to local authorities in order to undertake additional duties.<ref>{{Cite web |title=74292-005-001 – Alien Enemies Documents (War of 1812), 1812–1815 |url=https://da.mdah.ms.gov/series/territorial/s499/detail/10761 |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=MS Digital Archives |language=en |archive-date=July 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220715075150/https://da.mdah.ms.gov/series/territorial/s499/detail/10761 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Narea |first=Nicole |date=2025-03-18 |title=The ugly history behind the obscure law Trump is using for mass deportations |url=https://www.vox.com/politics/404745/alien-enemies-act-trump-venezuela-history-world-war |access-date=2025-03-22 |website=Vox |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== World War I ===
{{Main|Internment of German Americans#World_War_I}}
President [[Woodrow Wilson]] invoked the act against nationals of the [[Central Powers]] during [[World War I]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Proclamation 1364—Declaring That a State of War Exists Between the United States and Germany {{!}} The American Presidency Project |url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/proclamation-1364-declaring-that-state-war-exists-between-the-united-states-and-germany |access-date=2025-04-08 |website=www.presidency.ucsb.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Supreme Court of the United States |date=2025-04-07 |title=Donald J. Trump, President of the United States, et al. v. J.G.G., et al. |url=https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/24pdf/24a931_2c83.pdf |website=www.supremecourt.gov}}</ref> In 1918, an amendment to the act struck the provision restricting the law to males.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chapter 3 – Alien Enemies |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE-2019-title50/html/USCODE-2019-title50-chap3.htm |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=govinfo.gov |archive-date=July 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220715075308/https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE-2019-title50/html/USCODE-2019-title50-chap3.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== World War II ===
{{Main|Internment of Japanese Americans|Internment of German Americans#World War II|Internment of Italian Americans}}

On December 7, 1941, in response to the [[bombing of Pearl Harbor]], President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] used the authority of the revised Alien Enemies Act to make [[presidential proclamation]]s #2525 (Alien Enemies – Japanese), #2526 (Alien Enemies – German), and #2527 (Alien Enemies – Italian), in order to apprehend, restrain, secure, and remove Japanese, German, and Italian non-citizens.<ref name="AEAPP">{{cite web |title=Alien Enemies Act and related World War II presidential proclamations |url=http://gaic.info/history/related-laws/ |website=German American Internee Coalition |access-date=August 16, 2016 |archive-date=April 17, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240417022137/https://gaic.info/history/related-laws/ |url-status=live }}</ref> However, most of the 120,000 persons of Japanese descent incarcerated in U.S. internment camps were U.S. citizens detained solely on the basis of their Japanese ancestry, under the authority of [[Executive Order 9066]] issued by Roosevelt early in 1942. The order was issued on the basis of   wartime and national defense statutes unrelated to the Alien Enemies Act, and while deployed primarily against Japanese Americans did lead to the detention of smaller numbers of U.S. citizens of German and Italian descent.<ref name="trumanlib_WRA_1946">''Semiannual Report of the War Relocation Authority, for the period January 1 to June 30, 1946'', not dated. Papers of [[Dillon S. Myer]]. [https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/research-files/report-semiannual-report-war-relocation-authority-period-january-1-june-30?documentid=NA&pagenumber=4 Scanned Image] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250318140250/https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/research-files/report-semiannual-report-war-relocation-authority-period-january-1-june-30?documentid=NA&pagenumber=4|date=18 March 2025}} trumanlibrary.gov. Retrieved March 18, 2025.</ref><ref name="trumanlib_WRA_1946_OLD">''Semiannual Report of the War Relocation Authority, for the period January 1 to June 30, 1946'', not dated. Papers of [[Dillon S. Myer]]. [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/documents/index.php?pagenumber=4&documentid=62&documentdate=1946-00-00&collectionid=JI&nav=ok Scanned image at] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180616103305/https://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/documents/index.php?pagenumber=4&documentid=62&documentdate=1946-00-00&collectionid=JI&nav=ok|date=16 June 2018}} trumanlibrary.org. Retrieved September 18, 2006.</ref><ref name="trumanlib_1948">[https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/online-collections/war-relocation-authority-and-incarceration-of-japanese-americans?section=2 ''The War Relocation Authority & the Incarceration of Japanese-Americans During World War II''], not dated. Timeline. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250318122648/https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/online-collections/war-relocation-authority-and-incarceration-of-japanese-americans?section=2|access-date=18 March 2025}} trumanlibrary.gov. Retrieved March 18, 2025.</ref><ref name="trumanlib_1948_OLD">
"The War Relocation Authority and the Incarceration of Japanese Americans During World War II: 1948 Chronology",
[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1948.htm Web page]
{{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151105103017/http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1948.htm|date=2015-11-05}} at www.trumanlibrary.org. Retrieved September 11, 2006.</ref>

Hostilities with Germany and Italy ended in May 1945, and President [[Harry S. Truman]] issued presidential proclamation #2655 on July 14. The proclamation gave the [[United States Attorney General|attorney general]] authority regarding enemy aliens within the [[continental United States]], to decide whether they are "dangerous to the public peace and safety of the United States," to order them removed, and to create regulations governing their removal, citing the Alien Enemies Act.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Proclamation 2655 – Removal of Alien Enemies |url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/proclamation-2655-removal-alien-enemies |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=The American Presidency Project |archive-date=July 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220715075150/https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/proclamation-2655-removal-alien-enemies |url-status=live }}</ref> On September 8, 1945, Truman issued presidential proclamation #2662, which authorized the [[United States Secretary of State|secretary of state]] to remove enemy aliens that had been sent to the United States from [[Latin America]]n countries.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Proclamation 2662 – Removal of Alien Enemies |url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/proclamation-2662-removal-alien-enemies |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=The American Presidency Project}}</ref> On April 10, 1946, Truman's proclamation #2685 modified previous proclamations, and set a 30-day deadline for removal.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Proclamation 2685 – Removal of Alien Enemies |url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/proclamation-2685-removal-alien-enemies |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=The American Presidency Project |archive-date=July 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220715075151/https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/proclamation-2685-removal-alien-enemies |url-status=live }}</ref>

In ''Ludecke v. Watkins'' (1948), the Supreme Court interpreted the time of release under the Alien Enemies Act.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1947 |periodical=U.S. Report |title=Ludecke v. Watkins, 335 U.S. 160 (1948) |url=https://www.loc.gov/item/usrep335160/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013222818/https://www.loc.gov/item/usrep335160/ |archive-date=13 October 2022 |access-date=13 October 2022 |via=[[Library of Congress]]}}</ref> German alien [[Kurt Lüdecke|Kurt G. W. Lüdecke]] was detained on December 8, 1941, under Proclamation 2526, and continued to be held after cessation of hostilities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Smith |first=Arthur L. |date=2003 |title=Kurt Lüdecke: The Man Who Knew Hitler |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1432749 |journal=German Studies Review |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |location=Baltimore, Maryland |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=597–606 |doi=10.2307/1432749 |jstor=1432749 |issn=0149-7952}}</ref> In 1947, Lüdecke petitioned for a [[writ of habeas corpus]] to order his release, after the attorney general ordered him deported. The court ruled 5–4 to affirm the district court and appellate decisions to deny the writ of habeas corpus. The Court also concluded that the Alien Enemies Act allowed for detainment beyond the time hostilities ceased until an actual treaty was signed with the hostile nation or government or the until the president determines that hostilities have concluded.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ludecke v. Watkins, 335 U.S. 160 (1948) |url=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/335/160/ |access-date=2022-07-13 |website=Justia Law |language=en}}</ref>

In 1988, President [[Ronald Reagan]] signed the [[Civil Liberties Act of 1988]], which conceded that the internment of Japanese Americans had been based on "race prejudice, war [[hysteria]], and a failure of political leadership",<ref>{{Cite web |title=50 USC 4202: Statement of the Congress |url=https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title50-section4202&num=0&edition=prelim |access-date=2025-04-12 |website=uscode.house.gov}}</ref> and authorizing compensation for survivors.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-08-13 |title=Redress and Reparations for Japanese American Incarceration |url=https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/redress-and-reparations-japanese-american-incarceration#:~:text=The%20Civil%20Liberties%20Act%20of,incarceration%20during%20World%20War%20II. |access-date=2025-04-12 |website=The National WWII Museum {{!}} New Orleans |language=en}}</ref>

=== Non-wartime use against Venezuelans ===
{{Main|J.G.G. v. Trump|March 2025 American deportations of Venezuelans}}

On September 20, 2024, amid [[Venezuelan refugee crisis|increased numbers of Venezuelans asylum seekers seeking refuge in the United States]], then-nominee [[Donald Trump]] announced that if elected president for a second term he would invoke the Alien Enemies Act to expedite the removal of non-citizens and criminal networks operating in the United States.<ref name="cbsnews.com">{{cite web |last1=Montoya-Galvez |first1=Camilo |last2=Watson |first2=Eleanor |last3=D'Agata |first3=Charlie |last4=Gómez |first4=Fin |last5=Sganga |first5=Nicole |date=March 15, 2025 |title=Trump to invoke wartime Alien Enemies Act of 1798 to carry out deportations to Guantanamo |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/trump-alien-enemies-act-1798-deportations-guantanamo/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250314150519/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/trump-alien-enemies-act-1798-deportations-guantanamo/ |archive-date=March 14, 2025 |accessdate=March 15, 2025 |website=[[CBS News]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-21 |title=Trump vows to invoke a wartime law to deport suspected foreign gang members and drug dealers |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/donald-trump/trump-alien-enemies-act-travel-ban-deport-drug-dealers-gang-members-rcna108121 |access-date=2024-10-13 |website=[[NBC News]] |language=en}}</ref> On October 27, 2024, he again invoked the Alien Enemies Act during a [[2024 Donald Trump rally at Madison Square Garden|campaign rally]] held at [[Madison Square Garden]], claiming that he would use it to remove illegal immigrants operating within gangs and criminal networks on "day one" of his presidency.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Treisman |first=Rachel |date=October 19, 2024 |title=Trump is promising deportations under the Alien Enemies Act of 1798. What is it? |url=https://www.npr.org/2024/10/19/nx-s1-5156027/alien-enemies-act-1798-trump-immigration |access-date=November 7, 2024 |website=[[NPR]]}}
</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Levin |first=Bess |date=October 15, 2024 |title=Trump Plans to Use 18th-Century "Alien Enemies Act" for Mass Deportations |url=https://www.vanityfair.com/news/story/trump-plans-to-use-18th-century-alien-enemies-act-for-mass-deportations |website=[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]}}
</ref>

Trump repeated his intentions in his [[Second inauguration of Donald Trump|second inaugural address]] on January 20, 2025,<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 20, 2025 |title=The Inaugural Address |url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/remarks/2025/01/the-inaugural-address/ |access-date=March 17, 2025 |publisher=[[The White House]] |language=en-US}}</ref> and on March 14, he signed a presidential proclamation invoking the Alien Enemies Act against what he termed an invasion being perpetrated or attempted by the Venezuelan criminal gang, [[Tren de Aragua]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 14, 2025 |title=Proclamation 10903 of March 14, 2025: Invocation of the Alien Enemies Act Regarding the Invasion of the United States by Tren de Aragua |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2025-03-20/pdf/2025-04865.pdf |access-date=March 21, 2025 |website=govinfo.gov |publisher=Federal Register, Vol. 90, No. 53}}</ref><ref>{{Cite press release |title=Invocation of the Alien Enemies Act regarding the invasion of the United States by Tren de Aragua |date=March 15, 2025 |publisher=[[The White House]] |url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/03/invocation-of-the-alien-enemies-act-regarding-the-invasion-of-the-united-states-by-tren-de-aragua/ |language=en |access-date=March 15, 2025 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250315202035/https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/03/invocation-of-the-alien-enemies-act-regarding-the-invasion-of-the-united-states-by-tren-de-aragua/ |archive-date=March 15, 2025}}</ref> The following day he authorized the [[March 2025 Venezuelan deportations|deportation of Venezuelan suspected gang members]] to the [[Terrorism Confinement Center]] (CECOT) in [[El Salvador]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Garrett |first=Luke |date=2025-03-16 |title=U.S. deports hundreds of Venezuelans to El Salvador, despite court order |url=https://www.npr.org/2025/03/16/g-s1-54154/alien-enemies-el-salvador-trump |access-date=2025-03-17 |work=NPR |language=en}}</ref> Trump's [[List of executive orders in the second presidency of Donald Trump|executive order]] was temporarily blocked the same day by Judge [[James Boasberg]] of the [[United States District Court for the District of Columbia|U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia]], following a lawsuit, ''[[J.G.G. v. Trump]]'', seeking to stop the deportations.<ref name="politico.com">{{cite web |last1=Ward |first1=Myah |last2=Cheney |first2=Kyle |last3=Bianco |first3=Ali |last4=Gerstein |first4=Josh |date=March 15, 2025 |title=Federal judge halts deportations after Trump invokes Alien Enemies Act |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2025/03/15/trump-deportation-lawsuit-00232121 |accessdate=March 15, 2025 |website=[[Politico]]}}</ref>

On April 7, 2025, the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] [[Vacated judgment|vacated]] Judge Boasberg's [[Injunction|temporary restraining order]] and held that the plaintiffs must bring the lawsuit in Texas, where they are being held, not in Washington, D.C. The court also ruled that the government must provide sufficient notice to the plaintiffs and an opportunity to challenge the deportation. The ruling did not address the constitutionality of the deportation.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Supreme Court backs Trump in controversial deportations case |url=https://www.npr.org/2025/04/07/nx-s1-5345601/supreme-court-alien-enemies-act |access-date=2025-04-10 |work=NPR |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Beitsch |first=Rebecca |last2=Schonfeld |first2=Zach |date=April 7, 2025 |title=Supreme Court lifts orders blocking Trump from deporting Venezuelans under Alien Enemies Act |url=https://thehill.com/regulation/court-battles/5237011-supreme-court-trump-venezuelans-alien-enemies-act/ |access-date=April 9, 2025 |work=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]]}}</ref>

On April 19, 2025, in a signal that the majority of justices did not trust that the Trump administration was complying with the April 7 ruling, the Supreme Court issued an emergency late-night order in ''[[W.M.M. v. Trump|A.A.R.P. v. Trump]],'' halting the deportation process in the [[United States District Court for the Northern District of Texas|Northern District of Texas]]. According to court filings, the government intended to fly the Venezuelan detainees out of the country within 24 hours.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Stern |first=Mark Joseph |date=2025-04-19 |title=The Supreme Court’s Late-Night Rebuke to Trump Is Extraordinary in More Ways Than One |url=https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2025/04/supreme-court-blocks-deportations-donald-trump-alito-dissent.html |access-date=2025-04-23 |work=Slate |language=en-US |issn=1091-2339}}</ref>