Editing Algeria (section)

=== French colonisation (1830–1962) ===
{{main|French Algeria|Pacification of Algeria|Algerian War}}
{{see also|French North Africa}}
[[File:Vernet-Combat de Somah.jpg|thumb|Battle of Somah in 1836]]

Under the pretext of a slight to their consul, the [[July Monarchy|French]] invaded and [[Invasion of Algiers in 1830|captured Algiers]] in 1830.<ref>{{cite web|title=Background Note: Algeria|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/8005.htm|work=U.S. Department of State|access-date=24 June 2017|archive-date=19 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170619072130/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/8005.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author =Horne, Alistair |title=A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962 |publisher=NYRB Classics |location=New York, NY |year=2006 |pages=29–30 |isbn=978-1-59017-218-6}}</ref> According to several historians, the methods used by the French to establish control over Algeria reached [[Algerian genocide|genocidal]] proportions.<ref>{{cite book |first= Dominik J. |last= Schaller |editor1-first= Donald |editor1-last= Bloxham |editor2-first= A. Dirk |editor2-last= Moses |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=bEcTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA356 |title= The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies |publisher= [[Oxford University Press]] |date= 2010 |page= 356 |chapter= Genocide and Mass Violence in the 'Heart of Darkness': Africa in the Colonial Period |isbn= 978-0-19-923211-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Jalata|first=Asafa|title=Phases of Terrorism in the Age of Globalization: From Christopher Columbus to Osama bin Laden|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SCjxCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA92|date=2016|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US|isbn=978-1-137-55234-1|pages=92–93|access-date=12 December 2023|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328160439/https://books.google.com/books?id=SCjxCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA92#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kiernan|first=Ben|author-link=Ben Kiernan|title=Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur|url=https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326|url-access=registration|year=2007|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|isbn=978-0-300-10098-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326/page/364 364]–ff}}</ref> Historian [[Ben Kiernan]] wrote on the French conquest of Algeria: "By 1875, the French conquest was complete. The war had killed approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians since 1830".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kiernan|first1=Ben|title=Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur|publisher=Yale University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326/page/374 374]|url=https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326|url-access=registration|isbn=978-0-300-10098-3|year=2007|access-date=21 May 2017}}</ref> French losses from 1831 to 1851 were 92,329 dead in the hospital and only 3,336 killed in action.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Making of Contemporary Algeria, 1830–1987|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4nXl7h8i5scC&pg=PA42|isbn=978-0-521-52432-2|last1=Bennoune|first1=Mahfoud|date=2002|page=42|publisher=Cambridge University Press|access-date=22 May 2019|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328160440/https://books.google.com/books?id=4nXl7h8i5scC&pg=PA42#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>"Had planning been better (barracks, hospitals, medical services), the drain on men would have been {{sic|hide=y|miniscule}}: it has been calculated that between 1831 and 1851, 92,329 died in hospital, and only 3,336 in battle." The Military and Colonial Destruction of the Roman Landscape of North Africa ... – [[Michael Greenhalgh]], p366 [https://books.google.com/books?id=5pCfAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA366] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190320064550/https://books.google.com/books?id=5pCfAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA366|date=20 March 2019}}</ref> In 1872, The Algerian population stood at about 2.9&nbsp;million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Algeria (Djazaïria) historical demographic data of the whole country|url=http://www.populstat.info/Africa/algeriac.htm|work=Population Statistics |publisher=populstat.info|access-date=9 June 2012|author=Lahmeyer, Jan|date=11 October 2003|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120718104037/http://www.populstat.info/Africa/algeriac.htm|archive-date=18 July 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=November 2018}} French policy was predicated on "civilising" the country.<ref>{{cite book |author=Ruedy, John Douglas |title=Modern Algeria: The Origins And Development of a Nation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WIRWgrbE_fEC&pg=PA103 |year=2005 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-21782-0 |page=103 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906032036/https://books.google.com/books?id=WIRWgrbE_fEC&pg=PA103 |archive-date=6 September 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> The slave trade and piracy in Algeria ceased following the French conquest.<ref name="Hannay 1911"/> The [[French conquest of Algeria|conquest of Algeria]] by the French took some time and resulted in considerable bloodshed. A combination of violence and disease epidemics caused the [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] Algerian population to decline by nearly one-third from 1830 to 1872.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sowerwine |first1=Charles |title=France since 1870 |date=2018 |isbn=9781137406118 |page=37 |publisher=Bloomsbury |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2-xIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA37 }}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="Ricoux1880">{{cite book|last=Ricoux|first=René|title=La démographie figurée de l'Algérie: étude statistique des...|url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k103772b/f299.image|access-date=14 February 2013|year=1880|publisher=G. Masson|pages=260–261|trans-title=The figurative demographics of Algeria|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513102734/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k103772b/f299.image|archive-date=13 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=February 2013}} On 17 September 1860, [[Napoleon III]] declared "Our first duty is to take care of the happiness of the three million Arabs, whom the fate of arms has brought under our domination."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Le rêve arabe de Napoléon III|url=https://www.lhistoire.fr/le-r%C3%AAve-arabe-de-napol%C3%A9on-iii-0|access-date=15 January 2021|website=lhistoire.fr|language=fr|archive-date=21 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121033913/https://www.lhistoire.fr/le-r%C3%AAve-arabe-de-napol%C3%A9on-iii-0|url-status=live}}</ref> During this time, only Kabylia resisted, the Kabylians were not colonised until after the [[Mokrani Revolt]] in 1871.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

[[Alexis de Tocqueville]] wrote and never completed an unpublished essay outlining his ideas for how to transform Algeria from an occupied tributary state to a colonial regime, wherein he advocated for a mixed system of "total domination and total colonisation" whereby French military would wage total war against civilian populations while a colonial administration would provide rule of law and property rights to settlers within French occupied cities.<ref name="Tocqueville 2023, pp.47">Alexis de Tocqueville, ''Travels in Algeria'', ed. Yusuf Ritter, Tikhanov Library, 2023</ref>

[[File:Abd al-Qadir.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Abdelkader El Djezairi|Emir Abdelkader]], Algerian leader insurgent against French colonial rule, 1865]]
From 1848 until independence, France administered the whole Mediterranean region of Algeria as an integral part and ''département'' of the nation. One of France's longest-held overseas territories, Algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands of [[European ethnic groups|European]] immigrants, who became known as ''colons'' and later, as ''[[Pied-Noir]]s.'' Between 1825 and 1847, 50,000 French people emigrated to Algeria.<ref>{{cite book|last=Randell|first=Keith|title=France: Monarchy, Republic and Empire, 1814–70|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AvyGHAAACAAJ|year=1986|publisher=Hodder & Stoughton|isbn=978-0-340-51805-2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906031725/https://books.google.com/books?id=AvyGHAAACAAJ|archive-date=6 September 2015|url-status=live}}{{page needed|date=February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Fisher|first1=Michael H.|title=Migration: A World History|date=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0199764341|page=80}}</ref> These settlers benefited from the French government's confiscation of communal land from tribal peoples, and the application of modern agricultural techniques that increased the amount of arable land.<ref>{{cite book |author =Horne, Alistair |title=A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962 (New York Review Books Classics) |publisher=NYRB Classics |location=New York|year=2006 |isbn=978-1-59017-218-6 |page=32}}</ref> Many Europeans settled in [[Oran]] and [[Algiers]], and by the early 20th century they formed a majority of the population in both cities.<ref>Albert Habib Hourani, Malise Ruthven (2002). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=egbOb0mewz4C&pg=PA323 A history of the Arab peoples]''". Harvard University Press. p.323. {{ISBN|0-674-01017-5}}</ref>

[[File:Six chefs FLN - 1954.jpg|thumb|The six historical Leaders of the FLN: [[Rabah Bitat]], [[Mustapha Benboulaïd|Mostefa Ben Boulaïd]], [[Mourad Didouche]], [[Mohammed Boudiaf]], [[Krim Belkacem]] and [[Larbi Ben M'Hidi]].]]

During the late 19th and early 20th century, the [[White Africans of European ancestry|European share]] was almost a fifth of the population. The French government aimed at making Algeria an assimilated part of France, and this included substantial educational investments especially after 1900. The indigenous cultural and religious resistance heavily opposed this tendency, but in contrast to the other colonised countries' path in central Asia and [[Caucasus]], Algeria kept its individual skills and a relatively human-capital intensive agriculture.<ref>{{cite book|author=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present.|date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=220|isbn=9781107507180}}</ref>

During the [[Second World War]], Algeria came under [[Vichy France|Vichy control]] before being liberated by the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] in [[Operation Torch]], which saw the first large-scale deployment of [[Military history of the United States during World War II|American troops]] in the [[North African campaign]].<ref name="USMA-1945">{{cite book |author=United States Military Academy. Department of Military Art and Engineering |title=The War in North Africa Part 2—The Allied Invasion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KThNAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA5 |year=1947 |publisher=Department of Military Art and Engineering, United States Military Academy |location=West Point, NY |pages=4–5 |access-date=18 March 2021 |archive-date=3 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203050305/https://books.google.com/books?id=KThNAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA5 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Gradually, dissatisfaction among the Muslim population, which lacked political and economic status under the colonial system, gave rise to demands for greater political autonomy and eventually independence from [[Provisional Government of the French Republic|France]]. In May 1945, the uprising against the occupying French forces was suppressed through what is now known as the [[Sétif and Guelma massacre]]. Tensions between the two population groups came to a head in 1954, when the first violent events of what was later called the [[Algerian War]] began after the publication of the [[Declaration of 1 November 1954]]. Historians have estimated that between 30,000 and 150,000 [[Harki]]s and their dependents were killed by the [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|National Liberation Front]] (FLN) or by [[lynching|lynch]] mobs in Algeria.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7130307.stm | work = BBC News | title = French 'Reparation' for Algerians | date = 6 December 2007 | access-date = 16 November 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100420212617/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7130307.stm | archive-date = 20 April 2010 | url-status=live}}</ref> The [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|FLN]] used hit and run attacks in Algeria and France as part of its war, and the French conducted [[Torture during the Algerian War of Independence|severe reprisals]]. In addition, the French destroyed over 8,000 villages<ref name="Kevin Shillington">{{cite book|author=Kevin Shillington|title=Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&pg=PA60|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-45670-2|pages=60|access-date=17 February 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164808/https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&pg=PA60|url-status=live}}</ref> and relocated over 2 million Algerians to [[Internment camps in France#Algerian War|concentration camps]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ztnVsIiefwC&pg=PA179 |title=The Algerian Novel and Colonial Discourse: Witnessing to a Différend |author=Abdelkader Aoudjit |year=2010 |page=179 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=9781433110740 |access-date=22 November 2022 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328161116/https://books.google.com/books?id=8ztnVsIiefwC&pg=PA179#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

The war led to the death of hundreds of thousands of Algerians and hundreds of thousands of injuries. Historians, like [[Alistair Horne]] and [[Raymond Aron]], state that the actual number of Algerian Muslim war dead was far greater than the original FLN and official French estimates but was less than the 1&nbsp;million deaths claimed by the Algerian government after independence. Horne estimated Algerian casualties during the span of eight years to be around 700,000.<ref>{{cite book|first=Alistair|last=Horne|page=[https://archive.org/details/savagewarofpeace00horn/page/538 538]|title=A Savage War of Peace|isbn=978-0-670-61964-1|year=1978|publisher=Viking Press |url=https://archive.org/details/savagewarofpeace00horn/page/538}}</ref> The war uprooted more than 2&nbsp;million Algerians.<ref>{{cite book|first=Martin|last=Windrow|page=13|title=The Algerian War 1954–62|isbn=1-85532-658-2|date=15 November 1997|publisher=Bloomsbury USA }}</ref>

The war against French rule concluded in 1962, when Algeria gained complete independence following the March 1962 [[Evian agreements]] and the July 1962 [[Algerian self-determination referendum, 1962|self-determination referendum]].