Editing Albrecht Dürer (section)

===Nuremberg and the masterworks (1507–1520)===

[[File:Albrecht Dürer, Knight, Death and Devil, 1513, NGA 6637.jpg|thumb|''Knight, Death and the Devil'', 1513, [[engraving]], 24.5 x 19.1 cm]]
[[File:Albrecht Dürer - Melencolia I - Google Art Project (427760).jpg|thumb|right|''[[Melencolia I]]'' (1514), engraving]]

[[File:Dürer-Hieronymus-im-Gehäus.jpg|thumb|right|St Jerome in His Study 1514]]

[[File:Albrecht Dürer - The Rhinoceros (NGA 1964.8.697).jpg|thumb|left|''[[Dürer's Rhinoceros|Rhinoceros]]'' (1515), National Gallery of Art]]

Dürer returned to Nuremberg by mid-1507, remaining in Germany until 1520. His reputation had spread throughout Europe and he was on friendly terms and in communication with many of the major artists including [[Raphael]].{{refn|According to Vasari, Dürer sent Raphael a self-portrait in watercolour, and Raphael sent back multiple drawings. One is dated 1515 and has an inscription by Dürer (or one of his heirs) affirming that Raphael sent it to him. See {{cite book |last1=Salmi |first1=Mario |author1-link=Mario Salmi|last2=Becherucci |first2=Luisa |last3=Marabottini |first3=Alessandro |last4=Tempesti |first4=Anna Forlani |last5=Marchini |first5=Giuseppe |last6=Becatti |author6-link=Giovanni Becatti |first6=Giovanni |last7=Castagnoli |first7=Ferdinando |author7-link=Ferdinando Castagnoli |last8=Golzio |first8=Vincenzo |title=The Complete Work of Raphael |date=1969 |publisher=Reynal and Co., [[William Morrow and Company]] |location=New York |pages=278, 407}} Dürer describes [[Giovanni Bellini]] as "very old, but still the best in painting".<ref>[http://www.getty.edu/art/collection/artists/2974/giovanni-bellini-italian-about-14311436-1516/ Giovanni Bellini], The J. Paul Getty Museum.</ref>|group=n}}

Between 1507 and 1511 Dürer worked on some of his most celebrated paintings: ''[[Adam and Eve (Dürer)|Adam and Eve]]'' (1507), ''[[Martyrdom of the Ten Thousand]]'' (1508, for Frederick of Saxony), ''Virgin with the Iris'' (1508), the altarpiece ''Assumption of the Virgin'' (1509, for Jacob Heller of Frankfurt), and ''[[Adoration of the Trinity]]'' (1511, for Matthaeus Landauer). During this period he also completed two woodcut series, the ''Great Passion'' and the ''Life of the Virgin'', both published in 1511 together with a second edition of the ''Apocalypse'' series. The post-Venetian woodcuts show Dürer's development of [[chiaroscuro]] modelling effects,<ref>Panofsky (1945), 135.</ref> creating a mid-tone throughout the print to which the highlights and shadows can be contrasted. Other works from this period include the thirty-seven ''Little Passion'' woodcuts, published in 1511, and a set of fifteen small engravings on the same theme in 1512. Complaining that painting did not make enough money to justify the time spent when compared to his prints,<ref>Panofsky (1945), p. 44.</ref> he produced no paintings from 1513 to 1516. In 1513 and 1514 Dürer created his three most famous [[engraving]]s: ''[[Knight, Death and the Devil]]'' (1513, probably based on [[Desiderius Erasmus|Erasmus]]'s ''[[Handbook of a Christian Knight]]''),<ref>"[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/43.106.2 Knight, Death, and the Devil, 1513–14]". [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]. Retrieved 11 September 2020.</ref> ''[[St. Jerome in His Study (Dürer)|St. Jerome in His Study]]'', and the much-debated ''[[Melencolia&nbsp;I]]'' (both 1514, the year Dürer's mother died).{{refn|In March of this year, two months before his mother died, he drew [[Portrait of the Artist's Mother at the age of 63|a portrait of her]].<ref>Tatlock, Lynne. ''Enduring Loss in Early Modern Germany''. Brill Academic Publishers, 2010. 116. {{ISBN|90-04-18454-6}}.</ref>|group=n}} Further outstanding pen and ink drawings of Dürer's period of art work of 1513 were drafts for his friend Pirckheimer. These drafts were later used to design [[Lusterweibchen]] chandeliers, combining an [[antler]] with a wooden sculpture.

In 1515, he created his ''[[Dürer's Rhinoceros|woodcut of a Rhinoceros]]'' which had arrived in [[Lisbon]] from a written description and sketch by another artist, without ever seeing the animal himself. An image of the [[Indian rhinoceros]], the image has such force that it remains one of his best-known and was still used in some German school science text-books as late as last century.<ref name="Bartrum"/> In the years leading to 1520 he produced a wide range of works, including the woodblocks for the first western printed star charts in 1515<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/durer.html| title = Dürer's hemispheres of 1515 – the first European printed star charts |work=Star Tales |first1=Ian |last1=Ridpath |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231030185707/http://ianridpath.com/startales/durer.html |archive-date= Oct 30, 2023 }}</ref> and portraits in tempera on linen in 1516. His only experiments with [[etching]] came in this period, producing five between 1515–1516 and a sixth in 1518; a technique he may have abandoned as unsuited to his aesthetic of methodical, classical form.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Cohen |first1=Brian D |url=http://artinprint.org/article/freedom-and-resistance-in-the-act-of-engraving-or-why-durer-gave-up-on-etching/ |title=Freedom and Resistance in the Act of Engraving (or, Why Dürer Gave up on Etching) |website=Art in Print |series=Vol. 7 No. 3 |date=September–October 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111185709/https://artinprint.org/article/freedom-and-resistance-in-the-act-of-engraving-or-why-durer-gave-up-on-etching/ |archive-date= Nov 11, 2022 }}</ref>

====Patronage of Maximilian I====
[[File:Albrecht Dürer - Portrait of Maximilian I - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|''Portrait of Maximilian I'' (1519), oil on lime wood, 74&nbsp;×&nbsp;61,5&nbsp;cm, [[Kunsthistorisches Museum]], Vienna (Inv.&nbsp;GG&nbsp;825)]]
[[File:Albrecht Dürer, The Triumphal Arch of Maximilian, 1515 (1799 edition), NGA 76935.jpg|thumb|''The Triumphal Arch of Maximilian'' (1515, 1799 ed.), 42 woodcuts and 2 etchings, 354&nbsp;×&nbsp;298.5&nbsp;cm overall (National Gallery of Art, Inv. 76935)]]

From 1512, [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]] became Dürer's major patron. He commissioned ''[[The Triumphal Arch]]'', a vast work printed from 192 separate blocks, the symbolism of which is partly informed by Pirckheimer's translation of [[Horapollo]]'s ''Hieroglyphica''. The design program and explanations were devised by [[Johannes Stabius]], the architectural design by the master builder and court-painter Jörg Kölderer and the woodcutting itself by [[Hieronymous Andreae]], with Dürer as designer-in-chief. ''The Arch'' was followed by ''[[The Triumphal Procession]]'' completed c. 1512.

Dürer worked with pen on the marginal images for an edition of the Emperor's printed prayer book; these were quite unknown until facsimiles were published in 1808 as part of the first book published in [[lithography]]. Dürer's work on the book was halted for an unknown reason, and the decoration was continued by artists including [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]] and [[Hans Baldung]]. Dürer also made several portraits of the Emperor, including one shortly before Maximilian's death in 1519.

Maximilian was a very cash-strapped prince who sometimes failed to pay, yet turned out to be Dürer's most important patron.<ref>{{cite book |last1=McCorquodale |first1=Charles |title=The Renaissance: European Painting, 1400–1600 |date=1994 |publisher=Studio Editions |isbn=978-1-85891-892-1 |page=261 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h8JJAQAAIAAJ |access-date=3 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Cust |first1=Lionel |title=The Engravings of Albrecht Dürer |date=1905 |publisher=Seeley and Company, limited |page=66 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RSg_AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA66 |access-date=3 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Brion |first1=Marcel |title=Dürer: His Life and Work |date=1960 |publisher=Tudor Publishing Company |page=233 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nhANAQAAIAAJ |access-date=3 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref> In his court, artists and learned men were respected, which was not common at that time (later, Dürer commented that in Germany, as a non-noble, he was treated as a parasite).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Innes |first1=Mary |last2=Kay |first2=Charles De |title=Schools of Painting |date=1911 |publisher=G. P. Putnam's sons |page=214 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OqQaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA214 |access-date=3 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Schäfer |first1=Sandra |title=Erfolgreiche Medienarbeit für die Nachwelt |url=https://kulturfuechsin.com/at/albrecht-duerer-kaiser-maximilian-i-im-khm/ |website=Kulturfüchsin |access-date=3 December 2021 |language=de-DE |date=27 March 2019}}</ref> Pirckheimer (who he met in 1495, before entering the service of Maximilian) was also an important personage in the court and great cultural patron, who had a strong influence on Dürer as his tutor in classical knowledge and humanistic critical methodology, as well as collaborator.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Streissguth |first1=Tom |title=The Renaissance |year= 2007 |publisher=Greenhaven Publishing LLC |isbn=978-0-7377-3216-0 |page=254 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZIJmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA254 |access-date=4 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Jeffrey Chipps |title=Nuremberg, a Renaissance City, 1500–1618 |year= 2014 |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=978-1-4773-0638-3 |page=120 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AiYKBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT120 |access-date=4 December 2021}}</ref> In Maximilian's court, Dürer also collaborated with a great number of other brilliant artists and scholars of the time who became his friends, like [[Johannes Stabius]], [[Konrad Peutinger]], [[Conrad Celtes]], and Hans Tscherte (an imperial architect).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Co |first1=E. P. Goldschmidt & |title=Rare and Valuable Books ... |date=1925 |publisher=E.P. Goldschmidt & Company, Limited |page=125 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xbQ9AAAAIAAJ |access-date=4 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Merback |first1=Mitchell B. |title=Perfection's Therapy: An Essay on Albrecht Dürer's Melencolia I |date=2017 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-1-942130-00-0 |pages=155, 258 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-e1LDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA258 |access-date=4 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Conway |first1=Sir William Martin |last2=Conway |first2=William Martin Sir |last3=Dürer |first3=Albrecht |title=Literary Remains of Albrecht Dürer |date=1889 |publisher=University Press |pages=26–30 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LotPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA12 |access-date=4 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Allen |first1=L. Jessie |title=Albrecht Dürer |date=1903 |publisher=Methuen |page=180 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ll2H8mF0jrcC&pg=PA180 |access-date=4 December 2021}}</ref>

Dürer was proud of his ability.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bongard |first1=Willi |last2=Mende |first2=Matthias |title=Dürer Today |date=1971 |publisher=Inter Nationes |page=25 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V4pGAQAAIAAJ |access-date=3 December 2021}}</ref> When the emperor tried to sketch Dürer an idea on charcoa, Dürer took the material from Maximilian's hand, finished the drawing and told him: "This is my scepter."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Headlam |first1=Cecil |title=The Story of Nuremberg |date=1900 |publisher=J. M. Dent & Company |page=73 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dzNLAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA73 |access-date=4 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Seton-Watson |first1=Robert William |title=Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor: Stanhope Historical Essay 1901 |date=1902 |publisher=Constable |page=96 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tNHDXFR6M-cC&pg=PA96 |access-date=4 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bledsoe |first1=Albert Taylor |last2=Herrick |first2=Sophia M'Ilvaine Bledsoe |title=The Southern Review |date=1965 |publisher=AMS Press |page=114 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8_5IAQAAMAAJ |access-date=4 December 2021}}</ref> On another occasion, Maximilian noticed that the ladder Dürer used was too short and unstable, thus told a noble to hold it for him. The noble refused, saying that it was beneath him to serve a non-noble. Maximilian then came to hold the ladder himself, and told the noble that he could make a noble out of a peasant any day, but he could not make an artist like Dürer out of a noble.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nüchter |first1=Friedrich |title=Albrecht Dürer, His Life and a Selection of His Works: With Explanatory Comments by Dr. Friedrich Nüchter |date=1911 |publisher=Macmillan and Company, limited |page=22 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ROvVAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA22 |access-date=4 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Carl |first1=Klaus |title=Dürer |year= 2013 |publisher=Parkstone International |isbn=978-1-78160-625-4 |page=36 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DSn3AAAAQBAJ&pg=PT36 |access-date=4 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Landfester |first1=Manfred |last2=Cancik |first2=Hubert |last3=Schneider |first3=Helmuth |last4=Gentry |first4=Francis G. |title=Brill's New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World. Classical tradition |date=2006 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-14221-3 |page=305 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DebXAAAAMAAJ |access-date=4 December 2021}}</ref>

[[File:Albrecht Dürer, The Northern Celestial Hemisphere, 1515, NGA 43181.jpg|thumb|''The Northern Hemisphere of the Celestial Globe'', 1515, woodcut print, 61.3&nbsp;×&nbsp;45.6&nbsp;cm, ([[National Gallery of Art]])]]

This story and a 1849 painting depicting it by {{ill|August Siegert|de}} have become relevant recently. This nineteenth-century painting shows Dürer painting a mural at [[St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna]]. Apparently, this reflects a seventeenth-century "artists' legend" about the previously mentioned encounter (in which the emperor held the ladder) – that this encounter corresponds with the period Dürer was working on the Viennese murals. In 2020, during restoration work, art connoisseurs discovered a piece of handwriting now attributed to Dürer, suggesting that the Nuremberg master had actually participated in creating the murals at St. Stephen's Cathedral. In the recent 2022 Dürer exhibition in Nuremberg (in which the drawing technique is also traced and connected to Dürer's other works), the identity of the commissioner is discussed. Now the painting of Siegert (and the legend associated with it) is used as evidence to suggest that this was Maximilian. Dürer is historically recorded to have entered the emperor's service in 1511, and the mural's date is calculated to be around 1505, but it is possible they have known and worked with each other earlier than 1511.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Cascone |first1=Sarah |title=Astounded Scholars Just Found What Appears to Be a Previously Unknown Work by Albrecht Dürer in a Church's Gift Shop |url=https://news.artnet.com/art-world/durer-discovery-vienna-souvenir-shop-1750233 |access-date=17 July 2022 |work=Artnet News |date=10 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=AlbrECHT DÜRER? (2022) |url=http://museen.de/albr-echt-duerer-nuernberg.html |website=museen.de |access-date=17 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Albrecht Dürer gibt weiter Rätsel auf |url=https://www.mittelbayerische.de/region/nuernberg-nachrichten/albrecht-duerer-gibt-weiter-raetsel-auf-21503-art2138796.html |access-date=17 July 2022 |work=Mittelbayerische Zeitung |language=de}}</ref>

====Cartographic and astronomical works====
Dürer's exploration of space led to a relationship and cooperation with the court astronomer [[Johannes Stabius]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Crane |first1=Nicholas |title=Mercator: The Man who Mapped the Planet |year= 2010 |publisher=Orion |isbn=978-0-297-86539-1 |page=74 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RDhQIP5syucC&pg=PT74 |access-date=7 November 2021}}</ref> Stabius also often acted as Dürer's and Maximilian's go-between for their financial problems.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Conway |first1=Sir William Martin |last2=Conway |first2=William Martin Sir |last3=Dürer |first3=Albrecht |title=Literary Remains of Albrecht Dürer |date=1889 |publisher=University Press |page=27 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LotPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA27 |access-date=7 November 2021}}</ref>

In 1515 Dürer and Stabius created the first world map projected on a solid geometric sphere.{{sfn|Crane|2010|p=74}} Also in 1515, Stabius, Dürer and the astronomer {{interlanguage link|Konrad Heinfogel|de}} produced the first planispheres of both southern and northerns hemispheres, as well as the first printed celestial maps, which prompted the revival of interest in the field of [[Celestial cartography|uranometry]] throughout Europe.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Noflatscher |first1=Heinz |title=Maximilian I. (1459–1519): Wahrnehmung – Übersetzungen – Gender |date=2011 |publisher=StudienVerlag |isbn=978-3-7065-4951-6 |page=245 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PqT5V2mq4SIC |access-date=7 November 2021 |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lachièze-Rey |first1=Marc |last2=Luminet |first2=Jean-Pierre |last3=France |first3=Bibliothèque nationale de |title=Celestial Treasury: From the Music of the Spheres to the Conquest of Space |year=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80040-2 |page=86 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0ZFXiNn62ZEC&pg=PA86 |access-date=7 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Nothaft |first1=C. Philipp E. |title=Scandalous Error: Calendar Reform and Calendrical Astronomy in Medieval Europe |year= 2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-252018-0 |page=278 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dz5MDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA278 |access-date=7 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sauter |first1=Michael J. |title=The Spatial Reformation: Euclid Between Man, Cosmos, and God |year= 2018 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-9555-9 |page=98 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Qd7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA98 |access-date=7 November 2021}}</ref>