Editing 1223 (section)

==== Mongol Empire ====
* Spring &ndash; The Polovtsian army assembles on the [[Terek (river)|Terek River]] lowlands and are joined by [[Alans|Alan]], [[Circassians|Circassian]], and Don Kipchak/[[Cumans|Cuman]] forces. The Mongol army crosses the [[Caucasus Mountains]], but is trapped in the narrow mountain passes. The Mongol generals [[Subutai]] and [[Jebe]] ('''the Arrow''') send an embassy to the Polovtsians and convince them to break their alliance with the Caucasian peoples. The Mongol cavalry invades the [[Caucasus]] region and devastates the local villages, seizing slaves, cattle and horses.<ref>[[David Nicolle]] & Viacheslav Shpakovsky (2001). Osprey: ''Kalka River 1223 - Genghiz Khan's Mongols invade Russia'', p. 52. {{ISBN|1-84176-233-4}}.</ref>
* The Mongol army invades Polovtsian territory and defeats the Polovtsians in a great battle near the [[Don (river)|Don River]]. Several Polovtsian leaders are killed – while the remainder flees westwards, across the [[Dnieper|Dnieper River]], to seek support by various Russian princes. Steppe lands east of the Dnieper fall under Mongol control, Subutai and Jebe raise the wealthy city of [[Astrakhan]] on the [[Volga|Volga River]]. Subutai now parts his forces, he moves south to the [[Crimea]] (or '''Tauric Peninsula'''), while Jebe travels towards the Dnieper.<ref>John Man (2011). ''Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection'', p. 217. {{ISBN|978-0-553-81498-9}}.</ref>
* Mongol forces capture the nominally Genoese trading outpost of [[Sudak]], probably with the tacit approval of neighbouring rival Venetian outposts in the Crimea. Subutai promises to destroy any non-Venetian colonies in the area. In return, the Venetians provide Subutai with information about the kingdoms in [[Eastern Europe]]. Meanwhile, [[Köten|Köten Khan]], Cuman/Kipchak chieftain of the Polovtsians, convinces Prince [[Mstislav Mstislavich]] of [[Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia|Galicia]] to form an alliance, and informs him of his plight against the Mongols.<ref name="David Nicolle 2001 p. 57">David Nicolle & Viacheslav Shpakovsky (2001). Osprey: ''Kalka River 1223 - Genghiz Khan's Mongols invade Russia'', p. 57. {{ISBN|1-84176-233-4}}.</ref>
* [[February]] &ndash; A council of Russian princes summons at [[Kyiv|Kiev]]; several princes are convinced by Köten Khan to assemble an allied army to drive the Mongols back. During the first half of March, Russian princes return to their principalities and begin to raise forces for the forthcoming campaign. The alliance has a combined force of some 60,000 men, mainly cavalry. Subutai unites his army with Jebe, and sends ambassadors to the [[Kievan Rus']] princes, to tell them to stay out of the conflict as it didn't involve them.<ref name="David Nicolle 2001 p. 57"/>
* [[April]] &ndash; The Russian princes lead their separate armies from different parts of [[Russia]], to assemble 60 kilometres downriver from Kiev. There are three main groups of princes taking part in the campaign; the Kievan army is represented by Grand Prince [[Mstislav III of Kiev|Mstislav Romanovich]] ('''the Old'''). The second group are the [[Chernihiv|Chernigov]] and [[Smolensk]] armies under Prince [[Mstislav II Svyatoslavich|Mstislav II]]. The third group is the Galician-Volhynian army under Mstislav Mstislavich with his son-in-law [[Daniel of Galicia]], leaving from northern [[Ukraine]].<ref name="John Man 2011 p. 218">John Man (2011). ''Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection'', p. 218. {{ISBN|978-0-553-81498-9}}.</ref>
* The Mongol leaders Subutai and Jebe receive news that [[Jochi]], who camps north of the [[Caspian Sea]], will not be able to provide the expected reinforcements due to Jochi's reported illness or suspected refusal to obey his father [[Genghis Khan]]'s orders. Subutai sends an embassy to the Russian princes, to offer peace and perhaps attempt to break the Russian alliance with the Polovtsians. But the Mongol ambassadors are executed – a task eagerly carried out by Köten Khan's followers, by the end of April.<ref name="John Man 2011 p. 218"/>
* Late [[April]] &ndash; The Russian and Polovtsian armies march down the west bank of the Dnieper River. Within a few days of the march beginning, a second group of Mongol ambassadors appear in the Russian camp and again offer peace. When their offers are rebuffed, the ambassadors are allowed to leave unharmed. Meanwhile, Russian forces from Galicia arrive by boat or cart-loads of equipment and food, along the [[Black Sea]] coast and up the Dnieper River, screened by Mongol forces on the east bank.<ref name="David Nicolle 2001 p. 57"/>
* Late [[May]] &ndash; The Mongol army under Subutai and Jebe establishes a defensive position on the Kalka River. Increasing disagreements amongst the Russian princes, about the wisdom of continuing to pursue the Mongols deeper into the steppes. By the end of May, the allied forces reach the banks of the Kalka River. The Polovtsian vanguard is way ahead of the rest of the Russian army, which gives them a triumphant feeling. Meanwhile, Subutai and Jebe set up a trap against the Russian forces.<ref>David Nicolle & Viacheslav Shpakovsky (2001). Osprey: ''Kalka River 1223 - Genghiz Khan's Mongols invade Russia'', p. 64. {{ISBN|1-84176-233-4}}.</ref> 
* [[June]] &ndash; Mstislav Mstislavich escapes back to the Dnieper River with the remnants of his Galician army. Mstislav Romanovich ('''the Old''') surrenders and is executed. According to sources, he and other Russian nobles are slowly suffocated to death during a Mongol 'drunken feast', they are tied up and laid flat on the ground beneath what is described as a wooden 'bridge' (or platform), on which Subutai, Jebe and their officers feast. This is revenge for killing the Mongol ambassadors.<ref>John Man (2011). ''Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection'', pp. 220–221. {{ISBN|978-0-553-81498-9}}.</ref>
* [[Battle of Samara Bend]]: A Volga-Bulgarian army under [[Ghabdula Chelbir]] defeats the Mongols, probably led by Subutai, Jebe and Jochi. The Bulgars retreat during the battle but the Mongols pursue them. Then the main Bulgar forces ambush the Mongols. Subutai and Jebe retreat their forces near the city of [[Sarai (city)|Sarai]] (future capital of the [[Golden Horde]]), not far from where the Volga River empties into the Caspian Sea.<ref>David Nicolle & Viacheslav Shpakovsky (2001). Osprey: ''Kalka River 1223 - Genghiz Khan's Mongols invade Russia'', p. 83. {{ISBN|1-84176-233-4}}.</ref>
* Autumn &ndash; Mongol forces under Jochi, Subutai and Jebe attack and defeat the Qangl Turks (eastern Kipchaks or '''Wild Polovtsians'''), killing their ruler. During the winter, they continue eastwards across the [[Eurasian Steppe|Great Steppe]]. Jebe (possibly poisoned) suddenly dies of a fever near the [[Emil (river)|Imil River]].<ref>David Nicolle & Viacheslav Shpakovsky (2001). Osprey: ''Kalka River 1223 - Genghiz Khan's Mongols invade Russia'', p. 84. {{ISBN|1-84176-233-4}}.</ref>