Editing History of Australia (section)

===Social developments===
====Indigenous Australians====
[[File:Lionel Rose 1968.jpg|thumb|alt=Portrait of Lionel Rose|[[Lionel Rose]], 1968 [[Australian of the Year]]]]
[[File:Evonne Goolagong 1971.jpg|thumb|Tennis No. 1 [[Evonne Goolagong]] was 1971 [[Australian of the Year]]]]

The 1960s proved a key decade for Indigenous rights in Australia, with the demand for change led by Indigenous activists and organisations such as the [[Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders]], and embraced by the wider population as citizenship rights were extended.<ref>Haebich, Anna; Kinnane, Steve. "Indigenous Australians". ''The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 2''. p. 344-5</ref>

At the start of the decade, Aboriginal affairs were still regulated by state governments and, in the Northern Territory, by the Australian government. In most states Aboriginal Australians were banned from drinking alcohol and their freedom of association, movement and control of property was restricted. Queensland, Western Australia and the Northern Territory banned Aboriginal people from voting and Queensland and Western Australia controlled their right to marry. Aboriginals were often subjected to unofficial "colour bars" restricting their access to many goods, services and public facilities, especially in country towns.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Broome|first=Richard|title=Aboriginal Australians|publisher=Allen and Unwin|year=2019|isbn=9781760528218|edition=fifth|location=Sydney|pages=219–25}}</ref>

The official policy of the Australian government and most state governments, however, was the assimilation of Aboriginal people into mainstream culture.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Haebich|first1=Anna|title=The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 2|last2=Kinnane|first2=Steve|pages=344|chapter=Indigenous Australians}}</ref> In 1962, the [[Menzies Government (1949–1966)|Menzies Government]]'s ''Commonwealth Electoral Act'' gave Indigenous people the right to vote at federal elections. In 1965, Queensland became the last state to confer state voting rights on Aboriginal people.<ref name="autogenerated522">{{cite web|title=AEC.gov.au|url=http://aec.gov.au/Voting/indigenous_vote/indigenous.htm|access-date=14 July 2011|publisher=AEC.gov.au}}</ref><ref>Geoffrey Bolton (1990) p.190</ref>

In 1963, the Yolngu people of Arnhem Land sent a bark petition to the Australian parliament asking for recognition of their traditional land rights. They subsequently took their case to the Supreme Court of the Northern Territory which ruled against them in September 1971.<ref>Broome, Richard (2021). pp. 227–9</ref> In 1965, [[Charles Perkins (Aboriginal activist)|Charles Perkins]], helped organise [[Freedom Ride (Australia)|freedom rides]] into parts of Australia to expose discrimination and inequality. In 1966, the [[Gurindji Strike|Gurindji]] people of Wave Hill station commenced the [[Gurindji strike]] in a quest for equal pay and recognition of land rights.<ref>Geoffrey Bolton (1990) pp. 193, 195</ref>

In 1966, the Australian government gave Aboriginal people the same rights to social security benefits as other Australians.<ref>SCRGSP (Steering Committee for the Review of Government Service Provision) 2020, Overcoming Indigenous Disadvantage: Key Indicators 2020, Productivity Commission, Canberra. Section 1.7</ref> A [[Australian referendum, 1967 (Aboriginals)|1967 referendum]] changed the [[Australian constitution]] to include all Aboriginal Australians in the national census and allow the Federal parliament to legislate on their behalf.<ref>Geoffrey Bolton (1990) pp. 190–94. The vote represented a record in terms of support for constitutional change.</ref> A Council for Aboriginal Affairs was established.<ref>Geoffrey Bolton (1990) pp. 190–94.</ref>

Popular acclaim for Aboriginal artists, sportspeople and musicians also grew over the period. In 1968, boxer [[Lionel Rose]] was proclaimed [[Australian of the Year]].<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2011/may/11/lionel-rose-obituary Lionel Rose obituary]; The Guardian; 11 May 2011</ref> That same year, artist [[Albert Namatjira]] was honoured with a postage stamp.<ref>[https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/namatjira-albert-elea-11217#:~:text=Albert%20(Elea)%20Namatjira%20(1902%2D1959)%2C%20artist,Namatjira%20and%20his%20wife%20Ljukuta. Albert (Elea) Namatjira (1902–1959)]; Australian Dictionary of Biography</ref> Singer-songwriter [[Jimmy Little]]'s 1963 Gospel song "[[Royal Telephone]]" was the first No.1 hit by an Aboriginal artist.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jimmy-Little Jimmy Little]; Encyclopedia Britannica online</ref> Women's Tennis World No. 1 [[Evonne Goolagong Cawley]] was celebrated as Australian of the Year in 1971.<ref>{{cite book|author=Lewis, Wendy|author-link=Wendy Lewis|title=Australians of the Year|publisher=Pier 9 Press|year=2010|isbn=978-1-74196-809-5}}</ref>

[[File:Adam Giles Portrait 2015.jpg|thumb|Country Liberal [[Adam Giles]] became the first indigenous Australian to head a state or territory government when he became [[Chief Minister of the Northern Territory]] in 2016.]]

[[Neville Bonner]] was appointed Liberal Senator for QLD in 1971, becoming the first federal parliamentarian to identify as Aboriginal. [[Eric Deeral]] (QLD) and [[Hyacinth Tungutalum]] (NT) followed at a state and territory level in 1974.<ref>[https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp1718/Quick_Guides/IndigenousParliamentarians Indigenous parliamentarians, federal and state: a quick guide]; Parliament of Australia</ref> In 1976, Sir [[Doug Nicholls]] was appointed [[Governor of South Australia]], the first indigenous Australian to hold vice-regal office.<ref>[https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/nicholls-sir-douglas-ralph-doug-14920 Sir Douglas Ralph (Doug) Nicholls (1906–1988)]; Australian Dictionary of Biography</ref> By the 2020s, Aboriginal representation in the federal parliament had exceeded the proportion of Aboriginal people in the general population, and Australia had its first Aboriginal leader of a state or territory in 2016, when the Country Liberal Party's [[Adam Giles]] became [[Chief Minister of the Northern Territory]].<ref>[https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp2021/Quick_Guides/IndigenousParliamentarians2021#:~:text=Adam%20Giles%20(CLP%2C%20NT%20Legislative,2013%20to%2027%20August%202016. Indigenous Australian parliamentarians in federal and state/territory parliaments: a quick guide]; Parliament of Australia</ref>

In January 1972, Aboriginal activists erected an [[Aboriginal Tent Embassy|Aboriginal "tent embassy"]] on the lawns of parliament house, Canberra and issued a number demands including land rights, compensation for past loss of land and self-determination. The leader of the opposition Gough Whitlam was among those who visited the tent embassy to discuss their demands.<ref>Haebich, Anna; Kinnane, Steve. "Indigenous Australians". ''The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 2''. p. 345-49</ref>

The Whitlam government came to power in December 1972 with a policy of self-determination for Aboriginal people.<ref name="Haebich"/> The government also passed legislation against racial discrimination and established a [[Aboriginal Land Rights Commission|Royal Commission into land rights]] in the Northern Territory, which formed the basis for the Fraser government's [[Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976]].<ref name="Haebich"/>

[[File:CSIRO ScienceImage 4247 Ayers RockUluru in central Australian desert Northern Territory 1992.jpg|left|thumb|Uluru: returned to traditional owners in 1985]]

Following this, some states introduced their own land rights legislation; however, there were significant limitations on the returned lands, or that available for claim.<ref name="aiatsisland2">{{cite web|date=3 June 2015|title=Land rights|url=https://aiatsis.gov.au/explore/articles/land-rights|access-date=21 July 2020|website=Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies}}</ref> In 1985, the Hawke government handed over [[Uluru]] (Ayers Rock) to traditional owners with a lease back to the Commonwealth.<ref>Broome, Richard (2109). pp. 237–44</ref>

In 1992, the High Court of Australia handed down its decision in the [[Mabo v Queensland (No 2)|Mabo Case]], holding that Indigenous native title survived reception of English law and continued to exist unless extinguished by conflicting law or interests in land. The Keating government passed a Native Title Act in 1993 to regulate native title claims and established a Native Title Tribunal to hear those claims. In the subsequent Wik decision of 1996, the High Court found that a pastoral lease did not necessarily extinguish native title. In response, the Howard government amended the Native Title Act to provide better protection for pastoralists and others with an interest in land.<ref>Haebich, Anna; Kinnane, Steve. "Indigenous Australians". ''The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 2''. pp. 352–54</ref> By March 2019 the Native Titles Tribunal had determined that 375 Indigenous communities had established native title over 39 per cent of the Australian continent, with one third under exclusive title.<ref>Broom, Richard (2019). p. 361-62</ref>

From 1960 the Indigenous population grew faster than the Australian population as a whole. The Aboriginal population was 106,000 in 1961 (1 per cent of the total population) but by 2016 had grown to 786,900 (3 per cent of the population) with a third living in major cities.<ref>Broome, Richard (2019). pp. 216, 320–21, 352–3</ref> Despite the drift to large cities, the period from 1965 to 1980 also saw a movement of Indigenous Australians away from towns and settlements to small [[Outstation (Aboriginal community)|outstations]] (or homelands), particularly in Arnhem Land and Central Australia. The movement to outstations was associated with a wider trend for the revival of traditional culture. However, the expense of providing infrastructure to small remote communities has seen pressure from federal, state and territory governments to redirect funding towards larger Indigenous communities.<ref>Broome, Richard (2019). pp. 247–48, 367–68</ref>

From 1971 to 2006, indicators for Indigenous employment, median incomes, home ownership, education and life expectancy all improved, although they remained well below the level for those who were not indigenous.<ref>Broome, Richard (2019). p. 353-54</ref> High rates of Indigenous incarceration and deaths in custody were highlighted by the report of the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody in April 1991. The Keating government responded with $400 million in new spending to address some of the recommendations of the report. However, by 2001 Indigenous incarceration rates and deaths in custody had increased. Deaths in custody continued at an average of 15 per year during the decade to 2018.<ref>Broome, Richard (2019). pp. 274–78, 363–4</ref>

Richard Broome has concluded: "To close the gap [between Indigenous and other Australians] on inequality and well being will take many years; some despairingly say generations. Compensation for lost wages, for missing out on native title settlements and for being removed from one's family and kin remain unresolved."<ref>Broome, Richard (2019). p. 378</ref>

====Women====
[[File:Faces of Australia 22 (5426414793).jpg|thumb|A female police officer in 2008]]

Holmes and Pinto point out that in 1960 domesticity and motherhood were still the dominant conceptions of femininity. In 1961, women made up only 25 per cent of employed adults and twice as many women described their occupation as "home duties" compared with those in paid employment. The fertility rate fell from a post-war high of 3.5 to less than 2 in the 1970s and 1980s.<ref name="Holmes-2016">Holmes, Katie; Pinto, Sarah (2016). "Gender and sexuality". ''The Cambridge History of Australia, volume 2''. pp.324–28.</ref><ref>''Census of the Commonwealth 30 June 1961, Census Bulletin No. 21''. Canberra: Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics. 1962. Table 9: Occupational Status</ref>

The reforming drive of the 1960s and the increasing influence of the women's movement led to a series of legislative and institutional changes. These included the abolition of the "marriage bar" in the Australian public service in 1966, the Arbitration Commission's equal pay decisions of 1969 and 1972, the introduction of paid maternity leave in the Australian public service in 1973, and the enactment of the federal [[Sex Discrimination Act 1984|Sex Discrimination Act]] in 1984 and the Affirmative Action Act of 1986.<ref>Holmes, Katie; Pinto, Sarah (2016). "Gender and sexuality". ''The Cambridge History of Australia, volume 2''. p 324</ref>

Single mothers' benefits were introduced in 1973 and [[Family Law Act 1975|the Family Law Act 1975]] bought in no-fault divorce. From the 1980s there was an increase in government funding of women's refuges, health centres, rape crisis centres and information services.<ref name="Holmes-2016" /> The Australian government began funding child care with the Child Care Act of 1972, although state, territory and local government were still the main providers of funding. In 1984, the Australian government introduced standardised fee relief for child care, and funding was greatly expanded in 1990 by the decision to extend fee relief to commercial child care centres.<ref>{{Cite web|last=McIntosh|first=Greg|date=1998|title=Childcare in Australia: current provision and recent developments|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/Publications_Archive/Background_Papers/bp9798/98bp09#:~:text=The%20Commonwealth%20Government%20first%20became,of%20working%20and%20sick%20parents.live|access-date=26 April 2021|website=Parliament of Australia, Parliamentary Library}}</ref>

According to Holmes and Pinto, reliable birth control, increased employment opportunities, and improved family welfare and childcare provision increased opportunities for women outside motherhood and domesticity.<ref name="Holmes-2016" /> In 2019–20, women were more likely than men to hold a bachelor's degree or higher qualification. 68 per cent of women aged 20–74 years old participated in the labour force, compared with 78 per cent of men. However, 43 per cent of employed women were working part-time, compared with 16 per cent of men, and the average earnings of women working full-time was 14 per cent below that of men.<ref name="ABS-2020">{{Cite web|date=16 December 2020|title=Gender Indicators, Australia|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/people-and-communities/gender-indicators-australia/latest-release|access-date=26 April 2021|publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics}}</ref>

In the five-to-ten years to 2020, the number of women in private sector leadership roles, female federal Justices and Judges, and federal parliamentarians have all increased gradually.<ref name="ABS-2020" /> However, between 1999 and 2021, Australia has fallen from ninth to 50th in the [[International Parliamentary Union|Inter-Parliamentary Union]]'s ranking of countries by women's representation in national parliaments.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Rachel Nolan and James Pawluk|date=3 March 2021|title=More women will fix Parliament's 'culture' problem. Here's how to do it|url=https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/more-women-will-fix-parliament-s-culture-problem-here-s-how-to-do-it-20210303-p577ez.html|access-date=26 April 2021|website=The Sydney Morning Herald}}</ref>

==== Migrants and cultural diversity ====
[[File:Malcolm Fraser 1977 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Malcolm Fraser: Committed to a multicultural Australia]]

In 1961, just over 90 per cent of the Australian population had been born in Australia, New Zealand, the UK or Ireland. Another eight per cent had been born in continental Europe.<ref>''Census of the Commonwealth 30 June 1961, Census Bulletin No. 21''. Canberra: Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics. 1962. Table 4: Birthplace</ref> The White Australia policy was in force and migrants were expected to assimilate into the Australian way of life. As the White Australia policy was gradually dismantled in the 1960s and formally abolished in 1973, governments developed a policy of multiculturalism to manage Australia's increasing cultural diversity. In August 1973 Labor's immigration minister Al Grassby announced his vision of ''A Multi‐Cultural Society for the Future'' and a policy of cultural pluralism based on principles of social cohesion, equality of opportunity and cultural identity soon gained bipartisan support. The Galbally Report on migrant services in 1978 recommended that: "every person should be able to maintain his or her culture without prejudice or disadvantage and should be encouraged to understand and embrace other cultures." In response to the report, the Fraser government expanded funding for settlement services, established the Australian Institute of Multicultural Affairs (AIMA), funded multicultural and community language education programs in schools and established the multi-lingual Special Broadcasting Service (SBS). State and territory government programs to support multiculturalism followed.{{sfnp |Koleth |2010 |pp=4–8 }}

By the late 1980s Australia had a high migrant intake which included significant numbers of new arrivals from Asian and Middle‐Eastern countries, leading to public debate on immigration policy. In 1984, the historian Geoffrey Blainey called for a reduction in Asian immigration in the interests of social cohesion. In 1988, the opposition Leader, John Howard called for the abandonment of multiculturalism, a reduction in Asian immigration, and a focus on 'One Australia'. In the same year, the government's FitzGerald review of immigration recommended a sharper economic focus in the selection of immigrants. In 1989, the Hawke government released its ''National Agenda for a Multicultural Australia'' which endorsed respect for cultural diversity and the need for settlement services, but indicated that pluralism was limited by the need for "an overriding and unifying commitment to Australia".{{sfnp |Koleth |2010 |pp=9–11 }}

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Multicultural programs continued to expand between 1986 and 1996 with an emphasis on addressing disadvantage in migrant communities as well as settlement services for recent migrants.{{sfnp |Koleth |2010 |pp=9–11 }} James Walter argues that the Hawke and Keating governments (1983–96) also promoted high migration as a means of improving Australia's competitive advantage in a globalised market.<ref>Walter, James (2013). p.177</ref>

In 1996, Pauline Hanson, a newly elected independent member of parliament, called for a cut in Asian immigration and an end to multiculturalism. In 1998, her One Nation Party gained 23 per cent of the vote in the Queensland elections. The Howard government (1996 to 2007) initially abolished a number of multicultural agencies and reduced funding to some migrant services as part of a general program of budget cuts. In 1999, the government adopted a policy of "Australian multiculturalism" with an emphasis on citizenship and adherence to "Australian values".<ref>Goot, Murray (2013). pp. 205–06</ref>

Following 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks in the US, the Bali bombings and other terrorist incidents, some media and political commentary sought to link terrorism with Islam. In 2004, the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) reported an increase in vilification and violence against Australian Muslims and some other minority ethnic groups. The government increased funding for multicultural, citizenship and settlement programs, with an emphasis on the promotion of social cohesion and security.{{sfnp |Koleth |2010 |pp=15–16, 31–32 }} The annual immigration intake also increased substantially as the economy boomed, from 67,900 in 1998–99 to 148,200 in 2006–07. The proportion of migrants selected for their skills increased from 30 per cent in 1995–96 to 68 per cent in 2006–07.<ref name="Spinks-2010">{{Cite web|last=Spinks|first=Harriet|date=29 October 2010|title=Australia's Migration Program|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/BN/1011/AustMigration|access-date=12 April 2021|website=Parliament of Australia, Parliamentary Library}}</ref>

Immigration continued to grow under the Labor government (2007–13) with prime minister Kevin Rudd proclaiming a "big Australia" policy. The immigration intake averaged around 190,000 a year from 2011–12 to 2015–16, a level based on research indicating the optimum level to increase economic output per head of population. India and China became the largest source countries of new migrants.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Australian Government, Department of Home Affairs|title=Migration program statistics|url=https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/research-and-statistics/statistics/visa-statistics/live/migration-program|access-date=28 April 2021|website=homeaffairs.gov.au}}</ref> The immigration intake was reduced to 160,000 in 2018–19 as some State governments complained that high immigration was adding to urban congestion. The opposition also linked high immigration with low wages growth while the One Nation party continued to oppose high immigration while proclaiming: "It's okay to be white.".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Allen|first=Liz|title=From Turnbull to Morrison|year=2019|pages=180|chapter=Population, immigration and policy}}</ref>

By 2020, 30 per cent of the Australian population were born overseas. The top five countries of birth for those born overseas were England, China, India, New Zealand and the Philippines. Australia's population encompassed migrants born in almost every country in the world.<ref>{{Cite web|date=23 April 2021|title=30% of Australia's population born overseas|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/media-centre/media-releases/30-australias-population-born-overseas|access-date=28 April 2021|publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics}}</ref>