Editing Human nutrition (section)

== Research of nutrition and nutritional science ==
=== Antiquity: Start of scientific research on nutrition ===
[[File:Hippocrates pushkin02.jpg|thumb|right|upright|alt=Stone sculpture of a man's head|[[Hippocrates]] lived in about 400 BC, and Galen and the understanding of nutrition followed him for centuries.]]
Around 3000 BC the [[Vedic texts]] made mention of scientific research on nutrition.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}}{{example needed|date=January 2020}} The first{{citation needed|date=January 2020}} recorded dietary advice, carved into a [[Babylon]]ian stone tablet in about 2500 BC, cautioned those with pain inside to avoid eating [[onion]]s for three days. [[Scurvy]], later found to be a [[vitamin C deficiency]], was first described in 1500 BC in the [[Ebers Papyrus]].<ref>{{cite book | title=The Profession of Dietetics | author1=Payne-Palacio, June R. | author2=Canter, Deborah D. | year=2014 | publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning | isbn=978-1-284-02608-5 | pages=3–4}}</ref>

According to [[Walter Gratzer]], the study of nutrition probably began during the 6th century BC. In China, the concept of ''[[qi]]'' developed, a spirit or "wind" similar to what Western Europeans later called ''[[pneuma]]''.<ref name=Gratzer40>Gratzer 2005, p. 40.</ref> Food was classified into "hot" (for example, meats, blood, ginger, and hot spices) and "cold" (green vegetables) in China, India, Malaya, and Persia.<ref name=Gratzer41 /> ''[[Humorism|Humours]]'' developed perhaps first in China alongside ''qi''.<ref name=Gratzer40 /> Ho the Physician concluded that diseases are caused by deficiencies of elements ([[Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)|Wu Xing]]: fire, water, earth, wood, and metal), and he classified diseases as well as prescribed diets.<ref name=Gratzer41>Gratzer 2005, p. 41.</ref> About the same time in Italy, [[Alcmaeon of Croton]] (a Greek) wrote of the importance of equilibrium between what goes in and what goes out, and warned that imbalance would result in disease marked by [[obesity]] or [[emaciation]].<ref name=Gratzer36>Gratzer 2005, p. 36.</ref>
[[File:Anaxagoras.png|thumb|right|Anaxagoras]]
Around 475 BC, [[Anaxagoras]] wrote that food is absorbed by the human body and, therefore, contains "homeomerics" (generative components), suggesting the existence of nutrients.<ref name=history>[https://web.archive.org/web/20060824032910/http://rcw.raiuniversity.edu/biotechnology/MScBioinformatics/generalnutrition/lecture-notes/lecture-01.pdf ''History of the Study of Nutrition in Western Culture''] (Rai University lecture notes for General Nutrition course, 2004)</ref> Around 400 BC, [[Hippocrates]], who recognized and was concerned with obesity, which may have been common in southern Europe at the time,<ref name=Gratzer36 /> said, "Let food be your medicine and medicine be your food."<ref name="Smith">{{cite journal | title=Let food by thy medicine... | author=Smith, Richard | journal=BMJ | date=24 January 2004 | volume=328 | doi=10.1136/bmj.328.7433.0-g <!-- | pages="0–g" is NOT the actual article page -- DO NOT POST--> | issue=7433 | pages=0–g–0 | pmc=318470}}</ref> The works that are still attributed to him, ''[[Hippocratic Corpus|Corpus Hippocraticum]]'', called for [[moderation]] and emphasized [[Physical exercise|exercise]].<ref name=Gratzer36 />

[[Salt#Edible salt|Salt]], [[Black pepper|pepper]] and other spices were prescribed for various ailments in various preparations for example mixed with vinegar. In the 2nd century BC, [[Cato the Elder]] believed that [[cabbage]] (or the urine of cabbage-eaters) could cure digestive diseases, ulcers, warts, and intoxication. Living about the turn of the millennium, [[Celsus|Aulus Celsus]], an ancient Roman doctor, believed in "strong" and "weak" foods (bread for example was strong, as were older animals and vegetables).<ref name=Gratzer37 />

The [[Book of Daniel]], dated to the second century BC, contains a description of a comparison in health of captured people following Jewish dietary laws versus the diet of the soldiers of the king of [[Babylon]].<ref>[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=dan#en-NIV-21743 Daniel 1:5–16] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714172525/https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=dan#en-NIV-21743 |date=2022-07-14 }}. Biblegateway.com. Retrieved on 17 October 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite book | author=McCollum, Elmer V. | title=A History of Nutrition | publisher=The Riverside Press (Houghton Mifflin) | location=Cambridge, Mass. | year=1957 | pages=8–9}}</ref> (The story may be legendary rather than historical.)

=== 1st to 17th century ===
[[File:Galen detail.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=Shoulder high portrait of a man with beard and mustache wearing a cap|Followed for a millennium and a half, [[Galen]] (1st century) created the first coherent (although mistaken) theory of nutrition.<ref name=Gratzer37>Gratzer 2005, p. 37.</ref>]]

[[Galen]] was physician to gladiators in [[Pergamon]], and in [[Rome]], physician to [[Marcus Aurelius]] and the three emperors who succeeded him.<ref name=Gratzer38>Gratzer 2005, p. 38.</ref>
In use from his life in the 1st century AD until the 17th century, it was [[heresy]]{{clarify|date=January 2020}}<!-- where? in an actual religious sense?--> to disagree with the teachings of Galen for 1500 years.<ref name=Gratzer>Gratzer 2005, pp. 38, 39, 41.</ref> Most of Galen's teachings were gathered and enhanced in the late 11th century by [[Order of Saint Benedict|Benedictine monks]] at the [[Schola Medica Salernitana|School of Salerno]] in ''[[Regimen sanitatis Salernitanum]]'', which still had users in the 17th century.<ref name=Gratzer39>Gratzer 2005, p. 39.</ref> Galen believed in the bodily ''humours'' of Hippocrates, and he taught that ''pneuma'' is the source of life. [[Classical element|Four elements]] (earth, air, fire and water) combine into "complexion", which combines into states (the [[four temperaments]]: sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric, and melancholic). The states are made up of pairs of attributes (hot and moist, cold and moist, hot and dry, and cold and dry), which are made of [[humorism|four humours]]: blood, phlegm, green (or yellow) bile, and black bile (the bodily form of the elements). Galen thought that for a person to have [[gout]], [[kidney stones]], or [[arthritis]] was scandalous, which Gratzer likens to Samuel Butler's ''[[Erehwon]]'' (1872) where sickness is a crime.<ref name=Gratzer />

In the 1500s, [[Paracelsus]] was probably the first to criticize Galen publicly.<ref name=Gratzer /> Also in the 16th century, scientist and artist [[Leonardo da Vinci]] compared [[metabolism]] to a burning candle. Leonardo did not publish his works on this subject, but he was not afraid of thinking for himself and he definitely disagreed with Galen.<ref name=Gratzer41 /> Ultimately, 16th century works of [[Andreas Vesalius]], sometimes called the father of modern [[Outline of human anatomy|human anatomy]], overturned Galen's ideas.<ref>Gratzer 2005, p. 48.</ref> He was followed by piercing thought amalgamated with the era's mysticism and religion sometimes fueled by the [[mechanics]] of Newton and Galileo. [[Jan Baptist van Helmont]], who discovered several [[gas]]es such as [[carbon dioxide]], performed the first [[quantitative research|quantitative experiment]]. [[Robert Boyle]] advanced [[chemistry]]. [[Sanctorius]] measured [[body weight]]. Physician [[Herman Boerhaave]] modeled the [[digestion|digestive process]]. Physiologist [[Albrecht von Haller]] worked out the difference between [[nerve]]s and [[muscle]]s.<ref>Gratzer 2005, pp. 48–50, 52–54.</ref>

=== 18th and 19th century: Lind, Lavoisier and modern science ===
[[File:James lind.jpg|thumb|right|upright|alt=Waist high portrait drawn in pen and ink of a man balancing three books|[[James Lind]] conducted in 1747 the first controlled [[clinical trial]] in modern times, and in 1753 published ''Treatise on Scurvy''.<ref>{{cite journal | journal=Perspectives in Clinical Research | date=January–March 2010 | pages=6–10 | author=Bhatt, Arun | title=Evolution of Clinical Research: A History Before and Beyond James Lind | pmc=3149409 | pmid=21829774 | volume=1 | issue=1 | doi=10.4103/2229-3485.71839 | doi-access=free}}</ref>]]
Sometimes forgotten during his life, [[James Lind]], a physician in the British navy, performed the first [[science|scientific]] nutrition experiment in 1747. Lind discovered that [[Lime (fruit)|lime]] juice saved sailors that had been at sea for years from [[scurvy]], a deadly and painful bleeding disorder. Between 1500 and 1800, an estimated two million sailors had died of scurvy.<ref name=Willett-scurvy>{{cite book | author1=Willett, Walter C. | author2=Skerrett, Patrick J. | title=Eat, Drink, and be Healthy: The Harvard Medical School Guide To Healthy Eating | year=2005 | orig-year=2001 | isbn=978-0-684-86337-5 | publisher=Free Press (Simon & Schuster) | page=[https://archive.org/details/eatdrinkbehealth00will/page/183 183] | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/eatdrinkbehealth00will/page/183}}</ref> The discovery was ignored for forty years, but after about 1850, British sailors became known as "limeys" due to the carrying and consumption of limes aboard ship.<ref>Gratzer 2005, pp. 21–24, 32.</ref> The essential [[vitamin C]] within citrus fruits would not be identified by scientists until 1932.<ref name=Willett-scurvy />

[[File:Lavoisier humanexp.jpg|alt=Black and white engraving of Lavoisier's laboratory, man seated at left with a tube attached to his mouth, man at center conducting experiment, woman seated at right drawing, other people visible|thumb|left|By containing his assistant, [[Armand Seguin]], inside a rubber suit fitted with a tube sealed to his mouth with putty, [[Antoine Lavoisier]] first measured [[basal metabolic rate]].<ref>Gratzer 2005, p. 60.</ref> Drawing by [[Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze|Madame Lavoisier]] (seated at right).]]
Around 1770, [[Antoine Lavoisier]] discovered the details of metabolism, demonstrating that the [[oxidation]] of food is the source of body heat. Called the most fundamental chemical discovery of the 18th century,<ref>{{cite book | author=Silberberg, Martin S. | year=2009 | title=Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change | publisher=McGraw-Hill | isbn=978-0-07-304859-8 | edition=5 | page=44}}</ref> Lavoisier discovered the principle of [[conservation of mass]]. His ideas made the [[phlogiston theory]] of [[combustion]] obsolete.<ref>Gratzer 2005, p. 56.</ref>

In 1790, [[George Fordyce]] recognized [[calcium]] as necessary for the survival of fowl. In the early 19th century, the elements [[carbon]], [[nitrogen]], [[hydrogen]], and [[oxygen]] were recognized{{by whom|date=November 2014}} as the primary components of food, and methods to measure their proportions were developed.<ref name="Paul Muljadi">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dpNGTccTTbEC&pg=PA42 | title=Health | publisher=Paul Muljadi | author=Muljadi, Paul | pages=42}}{{dead link|date=May 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

In 1816, [[François Magendie]] discovered that dogs fed only [[carbohydrate]]s (sugar), [[fat]] (olive oil), and [[water]] died evidently of starvation, but dogs also fed protein survived&nbsp;– identifying [[protein]] as an essential dietary component.<ref>Gratzer 2005, pp. 73–74.</ref> [[William Prout]] in 1827 was the first person to divide foods into carbohydrates, fat, and protein.<ref>{{cite journal | journal=The Journal of Nutrition | title=William Prout (1785–1850): A Biographical Sketch | author=Ahrens, Richard | date=1 January 1977 | volume=107 | issue=1 | pages=17–23 | url=http://jn.nutrition.org/content/107/1/15.full.pdf+html | format=PDF | doi=10.1093/jn/107.1.15 | pmid=319206 | access-date=3 January 2020 | archive-date=17 October 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017082420/http://jn.nutrition.org/content/107/1/15.full.pdf+html | url-status=live}}</ref> In 1840, [[Justus von Liebig]] discovered the chemical makeup of carbohydrates ([[sugar]]s), fats ([[fatty acid]]s) and proteins ([[amino acid]]s). During the 19th century, [[Jean-Baptiste Dumas]] and von Liebig quarrelled over their shared belief that animals get their protein directly from plants (animal and plant protein are the same and that humans do not create organic compounds).<ref>Gratzer 2005, p. 82.</ref> With a reputation as the leading [[organic chemistry|organic chemist]] of his day but with no credentials in [[Physiology|animal physiology]],<ref>Carpenter 1994, p. 224.</ref> von Liebig grew rich making food [[extract]]s like beef [[Liebig's Extract of Meat Company|bouillon]] and [[infant formula]] that were later found to be of questionable nutritious value.<ref>Gratzer 2005, pp. 86, 92, 95, 115.</ref>
[[File:Takaki Kanehiro.jpg|thumb|right|upright|alt=Neck high portrait of middle aged man wearing a military uniform|[[Takaki Kanehiro]] surmised that [[beriberi]] was a nutritional deficiency not an infectious disease.]]
In the early 1880s, [[Kanehiro Takaki]] observed that Japanese sailors (whose diets consisted almost entirely of white rice) developed [[beriberi]] (or endemic neuritis, a disease causing heart problems and paralysis), but British sailors and Japanese naval officers did not. Adding various types of vegetables and meats to the diets of Japanese sailors prevented the disease. (This was not because of the increased protein as Takaki supposed, but because it introduced a few parts per million of [[thiamine]] to the diet.)<ref>Carpenter 1994, p. 220.</ref>).
In the 1860s, [[Claude Bernard]] discovered that body fat can be synthesized from carbohydrate and protein, showing that the energy in blood [[glucose]] can be stored as fat or as [[glycogen]].<ref>Gratzer 2005, pp. 98–99.</ref>

In 1896, [[Eugen Baumann]] observed [[iodine]] in thyroid glands. In 1897, [[Christiaan Eijkman]] worked with natives of [[Java (island)|Java]], who also had beriberi. Eijkman observed that chickens fed the native diet of white rice developed the symptoms of beriberi but remained healthy when fed unprocessed brown rice with the outer bran intact. His assistant, [[Gerrit Grijns]] correctly identified and described the anti-beriberi substance in rice. Eijkman cured the natives by feeding them brown rice, discovering that food can cure disease. Over two decades later, nutritionists learned that the outer rice bran contains vitamin B1, also known as [[thiamine]].{{medical citation needed|date=July 2015}}

=== Early 20th century ===
[[File:Carl von Voit.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=Shoulder high portrait of white haired man with a mustache and beard wearing a suit and bow tie|[[Carl von Voit]] has been called the father of modern dietetics.]]
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="float:right"
|-
! Vitamin
! Isolated in...<ref>Carpenter's table gives the year each vitamin was proposed, the year isolated (shown here), the year the structure was determined, and the year that synthesis was achieved. {{cite journal | author=Carpenter, Kenneth J. | title=A Short History of Nutritional Science: Part 3 (1912–1944) | journal=The Journal of Nutrition | url=http://jn.nutrition.org/content/133/10/3023/T2.expansion.html | date=1 October 2003 | volume=133 | issue=10 | pages=3023–32 | pmid=14519779 | doi=10.1093/jn/133.10.3023 | doi-access=free | access-date=3 January 2020 | archive-date=2 November 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171102141750/http://jn.nutrition.org/content/133/10/3023/T2.expansion.html | url-status=live}} from {{cite book | author=((Combs, G.F., Jr)) | year=1992 | title=The Vitamins: Fundamental Aspects in Nutrition and Health | publisher=Academic Press | isbn=978-0-12-381980-2}}</ref>
|-
| B<sub>1</sub>: [[Thiamine|thiamin]]
| 1926
|-
|[[Vitamin C|C]]: ascorbic acid
| 1926
|-
|[[Vitamin D|D]]: calciferol
| 1931
|-
| B<sub>2</sub>: [[riboflavin]]
| 1933
|-
|[[Vitamin B6|B<sub>6</sub>]]: [[pyridoxine]], [[pyridoxal]], [[pyridoxamine]]
| 1936
|-
|[[Vitamin E|E]]: tocopherol
| 1936
|-
| B<sub>3</sub>: [[Niacin (nutrient)|niacin]]
| 1937
|-
| B<sub>8</sub>: [[biotin]]
| 1939
|-
| B<sub>9</sub>: [[folate]]
| 1939
|-
| B<sub>5</sub>: [[pantothenic acid]]
| 1939
|-
|[[Vitamin A|A]] :retinol
| 1939
|-
|[[Vitamin K|K]] :phylloquinone
| 1939
|-
|B<sub>12</sub>: [[Vitamin B12|cynocobalamin]]
|1948
|-

|}

In the early 20th century, [[Carl von Voit]] and [[Max Rubner]] independently measured [[calorie|caloric]] energy expenditure in different species of animals, applying principles of physics in nutrition. In 1906, Edith G. Willcock and [[Frederick Gowland Hopkins|Frederick Hopkins]] showed that the amino acid [[tryptophan]] aids the well-being of mice but it did not assure their growth.<ref>{{cite journal | author1=Willcock, Edith G. | author2=F. Gowland Hopkins | title=The importance of individual amino-acids in metabolism: Observations on the effect of adding tryptophane to a dietary in which zein is the sole nitrogenous constituent | journal=The Journal of Physiology | volume=35 | issue=1–2 | year=1906 | pages=88–102 | pmc=1465819 | pmid=16992872 | doi=10.1113/jphysiol.1906.sp001181}}</ref> In the middle of twelve years of attempts to isolate them,<ref>{{cite book | title=Comprehensive Biochemistry: Selected Topics in the History of Biochemistry: Personal Recollections, Part 1 | editor=Semenza, G. | year=2012 | isbn=978-0-444-59820-2 | page=117 | volume=35 | publisher=Elsevier | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fac7AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117 | access-date=15 March 2016 | archive-date=24 January 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230124005335/https://books.google.com/books?id=fac7AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117 | url-status=live}}</ref> Hopkins said in a 1906 lecture that "unsuspected dietetic factors", other than calories, protein, and [[Dietary mineral|minerals]], are needed to prevent deficiency diseases.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Feeding Experiments Illustrating the Importance of Accessory Factors in Normal Dietaries | author=Hopkins, F. Gowland | journal=The Journal of Physiology | year=1912 | volume=44 | issue=5–6 | pages=425–60 | pmc=1512834 | pmid=16993143 | doi=10.1113/jphysiol.1912.sp001524}}</ref> In 1907, [[Stephen M. Babcock]] and [[Edwin B. Hart]] started the cow feeding, [[single-grain experiment]], which took nearly four years to complete.

In 1912 [[Casimir Funk]] coined the term [[vitamin]] to label a vital factor in the diet: from the words "vital" and "amine", because these unknown substances preventing scurvy, beriberi, and [[pellagra]], and were thought then to derive from ammonia. In 1913 [[Elmer McCollum]] discovered the first vitamins, fat-soluble [[vitamin A]] and water-soluble [[vitamin B]] (in 1915; later identified as a complex of several water-soluble vitamins) and named [[vitamin C]] as the then-unknown substance preventing scurvy. [[Lafayette Mendel]] (1872–1935) and [[Thomas Burr Osborne (chemist)|Thomas Osborne]] (1859–1929) also performed pioneering work on vitamins A and B.

In 1919, Sir [[Edward Mellanby]] incorrectly identified [[rickets]] as a vitamin A deficiency because he could cure it in dogs with cod liver oil.<ref name=NAS-D>{{cite web | url=http://www.nasonline.org/publications/beyond-discovery/vitamin-d.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150317071128/http://www.nasonline.org/publications/beyond-discovery/vitamin-d.pdf | archive-date=2015-03-17 | url-status=live | title=Unraveling the Enigma of Vitamin D | author1=Conlan, Roberta | author2=Elizabeth Sherman | date=October 2000 | access-date=13 June 2016 | publisher=National Academy of Sciences}}</ref> In 1922, McCollum destroyed the vitamin A in cod liver oil, but found that it still cured rickets.<ref name=NAS-D /> Also in 1922, H.M. Evans and L.S. Bishop discover [[Tocopherol|vitamin E]] as essential for rat pregnancy, originally calling it "food factor X" until 1925.

In 1925 Hart discovered that [[iron]] absorption requires trace amounts of [[copper]]. In 1927 [[Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus]] synthesized vitamin D, for which he won the [[Nobel Prize]] in Chemistry in 1928. In 1928 [[Albert Szent-Györgyi]] isolated [[ascorbic acid]], and in 1932 proved that it is vitamin C by preventing scurvy. In 1935 he synthesized it, and in 1937 won a Nobel Prize for his efforts. Szent-Györgyi concurrently elucidated much of the [[citric acid cycle]].

In the 1930s, [[William Cumming Rose]] identified [[essential amino acid]]s, necessary protein components that the body cannot synthesize. In 1935 [[Eric Underwood]] and [[Hedley Marston]] independently discovered the necessity of [[cobalt]]. In 1936, [[Eugene Floyd DuBois]] showed that work and school performance are related to caloric intake. In 1938, [[Erhard Fernholz]] discovered the chemical structure of vitamin E.<ref name=NAS>{{cite book | author=((Subcommittee on Vitamin Tolerance, Committee on Animal Nutrition, National Research Council)) | title=Vitamin E, in Vitamin Tolerance of Animals | url=http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=949&page=23 | year=1987 | publisher=National Academy of Sciences | access-date=22 December 2013 | doi=10.17226/949 | isbn=978-0-309-03728-0 | archive-date=24 December 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224112924/http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=949&page=23 | url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title=F.B.I. Joins Hunt for Young German Chemist | publisher=San Bernardino Daily Sun | date=18 December 1940 | url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/49173137/ | access-date=22 December 2013 | archive-date=24 December 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224105303/http://www.newspapers.com/newspage/49173137/ | url-status=live}}</ref> It was synthesised the same year by [[Paul Karrer]].<ref name=NAS />

[[University of Oxford|Oxford University]] closed down its nutrition department after World War II because the subject seemed to have been completed between 1912 and 1944.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Carpenter, Kenneth J. | date=1 November 2003 | title=A Short History of Nutritional Science: Part 4 (1945–1985) | url=http://jn.nutrition.org/content/133/11/3331.long | journal=The Journal of Nutrition | volume=133 | issue=11 | pages=3331–42 | doi=10.1093/jn/133.11.3331 | pmid=14608041 | doi-access=free | access-date=3 January 2020 | archive-date=23 January 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180123220353/http://jn.nutrition.org/content/133/11/3331.long | url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Institutionalization of nutritional science in the 1950s ===
{{Main|Nutritional science}}
''Nutritional science'' as a separate, independent science discipline was institutionalized in the 1950s. At the instigation of the British physiologist [[John Yudkin]] at the [[University of London]], the degrees Bachelor of Science and Master of Science in nutritional science were established. The first students were admitted in 1953, and in 1954 the Department of Nutrition was officially opened.<ref name=Davies24July1995>Davies, Louise (24 July 1995). [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-john-yudkin-1593131.html "Obituary: John Yudkin"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218163829/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-john-yudkin-1593131.html |date=2019-12-18 }}, ''The Independent''.</ref> In Germany, institutionalization followed in November 1956, when Hans-Diedrich Cremer was appointed to the chair for human nutrition in Giessen. Over time, seven other universities with similar institutions followed in Germany.<ref>Gertrud Rehner (1 June 2007): ''[http://geb.uni-giessen.de/geb/volltexte/2007/4777/pdf/SdF-2007-1_26-29.pdf 50 Jahre Institut für Ernährungswissenschaft in Gießen – Ein Rückblick] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220314170230/http://geb.uni-giessen.de/geb/volltexte/2007/4777/pdf/SdF-2007-1_26-29.pdf |date=2022-03-14 }}''. In: Der Präsident der Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen (Hrsg.): ''Spiegel der Forschung'', pp.&nbsp;26–30 (German only)</ref> From the 1950s to 1970s, a focus of nutritional science was on [[dietary fat]] and [[sugar]]. From the 1970s to the 1990s, attention was put on diet-related chronic diseases and [[Dietary supplement|supplementation]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Mozaffarian | first1=Dariush | last2=Rosenberg | first2=Irwin | last3=Uauy | first3=Ricardo | date=13 June 2018 | title=History of modern nutrition science—implications for current research, dietary guidelines, and food policy | journal=[[The BMJ]] | volume=361 | article-number=k2392 | publication-place=London | publisher=[[BMJ (company)|BMJ]] | doi=10.1136/bmj.k2392 | doi-access=free <!-- | issn=0959-8138 --> | jstor=26961096| pmid=29899124 | pmc=5998735 }}</ref>