Editing Reformation (section)

===Outcomes===
Protestants have to some extent developed [[Protestant culture|their own culture]], with major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts and many other fields.<ref name= "Karl Heussi 1956 pp. 317–319">Karl Heussi, ''Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte'', 11. Auflage (1956), Tübingen (Germany), pp. 317–19, 325–26</ref> Various outcomes of the Reformation have been suggested by scholars: improved [[human capital]] formation, the disputed [[Protestant work ethic]], improved [[economic development]], the modern state, and "dark" outcomes:{{sfn|Becker|Pfaff|Rubin|2016}}

==== Human capital formation ====
Claims include:
* Higher literacy rates,<ref name= "Becker 531–596">{{Cite journal|last1= Becker|first1=Sascha O.|last2= Woessmann |first2=Ludger|date=1 May 2009|title=Was Weber Wrong? A Human Capital Theory of Protestant Economic History|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics |volume=124|issue=2 |pages= 531–96|doi=10.1162/qjec.2009.124.2.531|issn=0033-5533|citeseerx= 10.1.1.657.9590|hdl= 1893/1653|s2cid= 3113486}}</ref>{{refn|group=note| Some historians restrict this to the Mercantile countries (Holland, England)<ref name=allen>1800s Germany had the literacy rate as neighbouring France.{{cite journal |last1=Allen |first1=Robert C. |title=Progress and Poverty in Early Modern Europe |journal=The Economic History Review |date=2003 |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=403–443 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0289.2003.00257.x |jstor=3698570 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3698570 |issn=0013-0117}}</ref> or the influence of the [[Age of Enlightenment]].<ref >{{Cite book|last=Vincent |first=David |editor-first1=John L. |editor-first2=Eileen H. |editor-last1=Rury |editor-last2=Tamura |title=The Oxford Handbook of the History of Education |year=2019 |chapter=The Modern History of Literacy |chapter-url=https://oro.open.ac.uk/69072/3/69072.pdf |access-date=December 21, 2023 |at=7 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199340033.013.30 |isbn=978-0-199-34003-3 }}</ref> }} 
* Lower gender gap in school enrollment and literacy rates.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Becker|first1=Sascha O.|last2= Woessmann |first2=Ludger|date=1 December 2008|title=Luther and the Girls: Religious Denomination and the Female Education Gap in Nineteenth-century Prussia |journal= Scandinavian Journal of Economics |volume=110|issue=4 |pages= 777–805|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9442.2008.00561.x|s2cid= 146303270 |issn=1467-9442}}</ref>
* Higher primary school enrollment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1 = Becker|first1=Sascha O.|last2= Woessmann |first2=Ludger|date=1 May 2010 |title=The effect of Protestantism on education before the industrialization: Evidence from 1816 Prussia|journal=Economics Letters|volume=107|issue=2|pages=224–28|doi= 10.1016/j.econlet.2010.01.031|citeseerx=10.1.1.517.2101|s2cid= 154922179}}</ref>
* Higher public spending on schooling and better educational performance of military conscripts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Boppart|first1=Timo|last2= Falkinger|first2=Josef |last3= Grossmann |first3=Volker|last4=Woitek|first4=Ulrich|last5=Wüthrich|first5= Gabriela|date=1 April 2013|title=Under which conditions does religion affect educational outcomes?|journal= Explorations in Economic History|volume=50|issue=2|pages=242–66|doi= 10.1016/j.eeh.2012.12.001|s2cid= 154150626 |url= https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/77611/1/Under_which_Conditions_Boppart.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/77611/1/Under_which_Conditions_Boppart.pdf |archive-date= 2022-10-09 |url-status= live}}</ref>
* Higher capability in reading, numeracy, essay writing, and history.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1= Boppart|first1=Timo|last2=Falkinger|first2=Josef|last3=Grossmann|first3= Volker|date=1 April 2014|title= Protestantism and Education: Reading (the Bible) and Other Skills|journal= Economic Inquiry |volume=52|issue=2|pages=874–95|doi= 10.1111/ecin.12058 |s2cid=10220106|issn=1465-7295|url=https://www.cesifo-group.de/DocDL/cesifo1_wp3314.pdf |archive-url= https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.cesifo-group.de/DocDL/cesifo1_wp3314.pdf |archive-date= 2022-10-09 |url-status= live}}</ref>

==== Protestant ethic {{anchor|Protestant work ethic}} ====
{{Main|Protestant work ethic}}
Claims include:
* More hours worked.<ref>{{Cite SSRN|last=Spenkuch|first=Jörg L.|date=20 March 2011|title=The Protestant Ethic and Work: Micro Evidence from Contemporary Germany|ssrn=1703302}}</ref>
* Divergent stated attitudes about the absolute priority of work between Protestants and Catholics.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Schaltegger |first1= Christoph A.|last2=Torgler|first2= Benno|date=1 May 2010|title= Work ethic, Protestantism, and human capital|journal=Economics Letters|volume=107|issue=2|pages=99–101 |doi= 10.1016/j.econlet.2009.12.037|url=https://eprints.qut.edu.au/32407/1/COVERSHEET_C32407.pdf |archive-url= https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://eprints.qut.edu.au/32407/1/COVERSHEET_C32407.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status= live}}</ref>
* Fewer referendums on leisure, state intervention, and redistribution in Swiss cantons with more Protestants.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1= Basten|first1=Christoph|last2= Betz|first2=Frank|title=Beyond Work Ethic: Religion, Individual, and Political Preferences |journal=American Economic Journal: Economic Policy |volume=5|issue= 3|pages=67–91 |doi=10.1257/pol.5.3.67|year=2013 |url= http://www.aeaweb.org/aej/pol/app/2011-0231_app.pdf |archive-url= https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.aeaweb.org/aej/pol/app/2011-0231_app.pdf |archive-date= 2022-10-09 |url-status= live|hdl= 1814/62006}}</ref>
* Lower life satisfaction when unemployed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1= van Hoorn|first1=André|last2= Maseland |first2=Robbert|date=1 July 2013 |title= Does a Protestant work ethic exist? Evidence from the well-being effect of unemployment|journal=Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization|volume= 91|pages=1–12 |doi= 10.1016/j.jebo.2013.03.038|url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/17796724/van_Hoorn_2013_JEBO_AC_Does_a_Protestant_work_ethic_exist.pdf |archive-url= https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/17796724/van_Hoorn_2013_JEBO_AC_Does_a_Protestant_work_ethic_exist.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status= live|hdl=11370/edf4c610-0828-4ba7-b222-9ce36e3c58be|s2cid= 73683588 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>
* Pro-market attitudes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hayward|first1=R. David|last2=Kemmelmeier |first2= Markus |date= 1 November 2011|title=Weber Revisited A Cross-National Analysis of Religiosity, Religious Culture, and Economic Attitudes |journal=Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology |volume=42|issue=8|pages=1406–1420 |doi= 10.1177/0022022111412527 |s2cid= 9101480 |issn=0022-0221}}</ref>
* Higher relative income growth in Protestant cities compared to Catholic cities (correlated with larger growth in Protestant city size.)<ref name= "Becker 531–596"/>

==== Economic development ====
[[File:Katharina-v-Bora-1526.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Katharina von Bora]] played a role in shaping social ethics during the Reformation.]]
Claims include:
* Different levels of income tax revenue per capita, % of labor force in manufacturing and services, and incomes of male elementary school teachers.<ref name="Becker 531–596"/>
* Growth of Protestant cities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last= Cantoni |first=Davide|date=1 August 2015|title=The Economic Effects of the Protestant Reformation: Testing the Weber Hypothesis in the German Lands|journal=Journal of the European Economic Association |volume= 13 |issue= 4|pages=561–98|doi=10.1111/jeea.12117 |issn= 1542-4774|hdl= 10230/11729 |s2cid=7528944 |hdl-access= free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url= http://voxeu.org/article/protestant-reformation-economic-institutions-and-development|title=Origins of growth: How state institutions forged during the Protestant Reformation drove development |website=VoxEU |access-date= 26 April 2016|date=26 April 2016}}</ref>
* Greater entrepreneurship among religious minorities in Protestant states.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1= Nunziata|first1=Luca|last2=Rocco|first2= Lorenzo|date=1 January 2014|title=The Protestant Ethic and Entrepreneurship: Evidence from Religious Minorities from the Former Holy Roman Empire|journal=Mpra Paper |url= https://ideas.repec.org/p/pra/mprapa/53566.html|publisher=University Library of Munich, Germany}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1= Nunziata |first1=Luca|last2=Rocco|first2= Lorenzo |date=20 January 2016|title= A tale of minorities: evidence on religious ethics and entrepreneurship |journal= Journal of Economic Growth |volume=21|issue=2|pages= 189–224|doi= 10.1007/s10887-015-9123-2 |s2cid= 55740195|issn= 1381-4338}}</ref>
* Different social ethics facilitating impersonal trade.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Arruñada|first=Benito|date=1 September 2010|title=Protestants and Catholics: Similar Work Ethic, Different Social Ethic*|journal=The Economic Journal |volume=120 |issue= 547 |pages=890–918|doi=10.1111/j.1468-0297.2009.02325.x|issn= 1468-0297 |hdl=10230/624|s2cid=6753991 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>
*Industrialization.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Spater|first1=Jeremy|last2= Tranvik|first2=Isak|date=1 November 2019|title=The Protestant Ethic Reexamined: Calvinism and Industrialization |journal= Comparative Political Studies|volume=52|issue= 13–14 |pages=1963–94|doi= 10.1177/0010414019830721 |s2cid= 204438351 |issn=0010-4140}}</ref>

==== Modern states ====
Claims include:
* The Reformation has been credited as a key factor in the development of the state system.<ref>{{cite book | url= http://press.princeton.edu/titles/8934.html |last =Nexon|first = D.H.| title = The Struggle for Power in Early Modern Europe: Religious Conflict, Dynastic Empires, and International Change |date = 20 April 2009|publisher = Princeton University Press|isbn = 978-0-691-13793-3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Philpott|first=Daniel|date= 1 January 2000|title=The Religious Roots of Modern International Relations |journal=World Politics|volume=52|issue=2|pages=206–45|doi= 10.1017/S0043887100002604|s2cid= 40773221|issn= 1086-3338}}</ref>
* The Reformation has been credited as a key factor in the formation of transnational advocacy movements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last = Stamatov |first=Peter |date=1 August 2010 |title=Activist Religion, Empire, and the Emergence of Modern Long-Distance Advocacy Networks|journal= American Sociological Review |volume=75|issue=4|pages=607–28|doi= 10.1177/0003122410374083|s2cid= 145615068 |issn=0003-1224|hdl= 10016/33305 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>
* The Reformation impacted the Western legal tradition.<ref>{{Cite book |url= http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674022300&content=reviews |title=Law and Revolution | volume = II |author=Harold J. Berman | date=30 September 2006 |publisher= Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |isbn= 978-0-67402230-0 |access-date=19 April 2016}}</ref>
* Enabling professional [[Bureaucracy|bureaucracies]] to emerge in Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal |last= Figueroa |first=Valentín |date=2023 |title=The Protestant Road to Bureaucracy |url= https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/article/885481 |journal=World Politics |volume= 75 |issue=2 |pages=390–437 |doi=10.1353/wp.2023.0006 |issn= 1086-3338}}</ref>
* Establishment of state churches.<ref>{{Cite journal|last= Gorski |first=Philip S.|date=1 January 2000|title=Historicizing the Secularization Debate: Church, State, and Society in Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe, ca. 1300 to 1700 |jstor= 2657295|journal=American Sociological Review |volume=65|issue=1 |pages= 138–67 |doi=10.2307/2657295|s2cid= 147029738}}</ref>
* Poor relief and social welfare regimes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last= Pullan |first=Brian|date= 1 January 1976 |title=Catholics and the Poor in Early Modern Europe|jstor=3679070|journal= Transactions of the Royal Historical Society|volume=26|pages= 15–34 |doi= 10.2307/3679070|s2cid= 161899850}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kahl |first= Sigrun|date=1 April 2005|title= The religious roots of modern poverty policy: Catholic, Lutheran, and Reformed Protestant traditions compared |journal=European Journal of Sociology / Archives Européennes de Sociologie|volume=46|issue=1|pages= 91–126|doi=10.1017/S0003975605000044|issn=1474-0583|hdl= 11858/00-001M-0000-0012-4DFA-2 |s2cid= 9584702|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
* [[James Madison]] noted that [[Martin Luther]]'s [[two kingdoms doctrine|doctrine of the two kingdoms]] marked the beginning of the modern conception of [[separation of church and state]].<ref>{{cite book |last1= Madison |first1=James |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=I6tLmjLqRfAC&pg=PA242 |title= Madison to Schaeffer, 1821 |year= 1865 |pages= 242–43}}</ref>
* The Calvinist and Lutheran doctrine of the [[lesser magistrate]] contributed to [[resistance theory in the Early Modern period]] and was employed in the [[United States Declaration of Independence]].
* Reformers such as Calvin promoted [[mixed government]] and the [[separation of powers]],<ref>Clifton E. Olmstead (1960), ''History of Religion in the United States'', Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, pp.&nbsp;9–10</ref><ref name= "ReferenceA">Jan Weerda, ''Calvin'', in ''Evangelisches Soziallexikon'', col. 210–11</ref> which governments such as the United States subsequently adopted.<ref>Heinrich August Winkler (2012), ''Geschichte des Westens. Von den Anfängen in der Antike bis zum 20. Jahrhundert'', 3rd Ed., Munich (Germany), {{ISBN|978-3-406-59235-5}}, pp. 290ff.</ref><ref>{{cite web | title= Constitution Day 2021: Mixed Government, Bicameralism, and the Creation of the U.S. Senate | url= https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/senate-stories/constitution-day-2021-mixed-government-bicameralism.htm | date=September 17, 2021 | work=U.S. Senate | access-date= December 30, 2021}}</ref>

====World demographics====
{{pie chart|thumb = right
|caption = [[List_of_Christian_denominations_by_number_of_members|World Christianity]] by tradition in 2024 as per [[World Christian Encyclopedia|World Christian Database]]<ref name="WorldChristian Database">{{cite web |url=https://www.gordonconwell.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2024/01/Status-of-Global-Christianity-2024.pdf |title=Status of Global Christianity, 2024, in the Context of 1900–2050 |publisher=Center for the Study of Global Christianity, Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary |quote=Christian total 2,508,432,000; Catholics 1,278,009,000; Protestants 625,606,000; Independents 421,689,000; Orthodox 293,158,000; Unaffiliated 123,508,000|access-date=23 May 2024}}</ref>
|label1 = [[Catholic]]
|value1 = 48.6
|color1 = Purple
|label2 = [[Protestant]]
|value2 = 23.8
|color2 = Darkblue
|label3 = [[Non-denominational Christianity|Independent]]
|value3 = 16.0
|color3 = Orange
|label4 = [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]]
|value4 = 11.1
|color4 = Lightblue
|label5 = Other
|value5 = 0.5
|color5 = Green}}
Today, classical Protestantism (including Anglicans) has between [[List_of_Christian_denominations_by_number_of_members#Historical_Protestantism_–_300–600_million|300 and 625 million worldwide adherents]],<ref name= "gordonconwell.edu">{{cite web |url= https://www.gordonconwell.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2024/01/Status-of-Global-Christianity-2024.pdf |title=Status of Global Christianity, 2024, in the Context of 1900–2050 |publisher=Center for the Study of Global Christianity, Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary |access-date=23 May 2024|quote=Protestants: 625,606,000; Independents: 421,689,000; Unaffiliated Christians: 123,508,000}}</ref> up to one quarter of all Christians.

And general Protestantism—broadly defined to also include Evangelical, Pentecostal, non-conformist and non-denominationalists<ref group= note>Over half of this population are in [[List_of_Christian denominations_by_number_of_members#Modern_Protestantism_–_400–500_million|Modern 
Protestant]] denominations such as Pentecostal churches which are not derived from the historical Reformation denominations; and the remaining Historical denominations include [[Arminian]] denominations such as [[List of Christian denominations by number of members#Methodism – 60–80 million|Methodists]] which do not hold to certain key Reformation doctrines, such as ''sola fide''.</ref>—constitutes the [[List of Christian denominations by number of members|second-largest form]] of Christianity (after Catholicism), with between 850,000 and 1.17 billion adherents worldwide (between 40% and 45% of all Christians)<ref name= "pewforum1">{{cite web|url= http://www.pewforum.org/files/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf |title= Pew forum: Grobal Christianity |date=19 December 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131101114257/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf |access-date=14 May 2014|archive-date=1 November 2013}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|Most current estimates place the world's Protestant population in the range of 800 million to more than 1&nbsp;billion. For example, author Hans Hillerbrand estimated a total Protestant population of 833,457,000 in 2004,<ref name= "books.google.pl">{{cite book|last = Hillerbrand|first=Hans J.|title= Encyclopedia of Protestantism: 4-volume Set|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PMSTAgAAQBAJ&pg=RA2-PA349|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-96028-5|page=2}}</ref> while a report by Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary – 1,170,803,000 (with inclusion of independents as defined in this article) in 2024.<ref name= "gordonconwell.edu" />}} divided into an estimated 45,000 denominations.<ref>{{cite web |title=Quick Facts About Global Christianity |url=https://www.gordonconwell.edu/center-for-global-christianity/research/quick-facts/ |website=Center for the Study of Global Christianity |language=en}}</ref>

==== Other outcomes ====
Other claims include:
* Witch trials became more common in regions or other jurisdictions where Protestants and Catholics contested the religious market.<ref>{{Cite web|url= http://economics.yale.edu/sites/default/files/witch_trials.pdf|title=Witch Trials|url-status= dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160513034745/http://economics.yale.edu/sites/default/files/witch_trials.pdf|archive-date=13 May 2016}}</ref>
* Christopher J. Probst, in his book ''Demonizing the Jews: Luther and the Protestant Church in Nazi Germany'' (2012), shows that a large number of German Protestant clergy and theologians during [[Nazi Germany]] used Luther's hostile publications towards the Jews and Judaism to justify at least in part the anti-Semitic policies of the National Socialists.<ref>{{Cite web |title= Demonizing the Jews: Luther and the Protestant church in Nazi Germany / Christopher J. Probst |url= https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/bib226337 |access-date= 2023-05-18 |website=Collections | publisher =United States Holocaust Memorial Museum}}</ref>
* In its decree on [[Unitatis redintegratio |ecumenism]], the [[Second Vatican Council]] of Catholic bishops declared that by contemporary dialogue that, while still holding views as the One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church, between the churches "all are led to examine their own faithfulness to Christ's will for the Church and accordingly to undertake with vigor the task of renewal and reform" (''Unitatis Redintegratio'', 4).
* Beer production switched from using herbs to hops.<ref>{{cite web |last1= Martyris |first1=Nina |title=The Other Reformation: How Martin Luther Changed Our Beer, Too |work=NPR |date=31 October 2017 |url= https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2017/10/31/561117731/the-other-reformation-how-martin-luther-changed-our-beer-too |access-date= 29 November 2023}}</ref>