Editing History of science (section)

==19th century==
{{Further | 19th century in science }}
The 19th century saw the birth of science as a profession. [[William Whewell]] had coined the term ''scientist'' in 1833,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | access-date=3 March 2008 | url=http://www.science.uva.nl/~seop/entries/whewell/ | title=William Whewell | encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | publisher=The Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University | date=2000-12-23 | last1=Snyder | first1=Laura J. | archive-date=4 January 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104025611/http://www.science.uva.nl/~seop/entries/whewell/ | url-status=live }}</ref> which soon replaced the older term ''natural philosopher''.

===Developments in physics===
[[File:Painting of Volta by Bertini (photo).jpeg|thumb| right | [[Alessandro Volta]] demonstrates the first [[Electrochemical cell|electrical cell]] to [[Napoleon]] in 1801.]]
In physics, the behavior of electricity and magnetism was studied by [[Giovanni Aldini]], [[Alessandro Volta]], [[Michael Faraday]], [[Georg Ohm]], and others. The experiments, theories and discoveries of [[Michael Faraday]], [[Andre-Marie Ampere]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]], and their contemporaries led to the unification of the two phenomena into a single theory of [[electromagnetism]] as described by [[Maxwell's equations]]. [[Thermodynamics]] led to an understanding of heat and the notion of energy being defined.

===Discovery of Neptune===
In astronomy, the planet Neptune was discovered. Advances in astronomy and in optical systems in the 19th century resulted in the first observation of an [[asteroid]] ([[Ceres (dwarf planet)|1 Ceres]]) in 1801, and the discovery of [[Neptune]] in 1846.

===Developments in mathematics===
In mathematics, the notion of complex numbers finally matured and led to a subsequent analytical theory; they also began the use of [[hypercomplex number]]s. [[Karl Weierstrass]] and others carried out the [[arithmetization of analysis]] for functions of [[Function of a real variable|real]] and [[complex variable]]s. It also saw rise to [[Non-Euclidean geometry|new progress in geometry]] beyond those classical theories of Euclid, after a period of nearly two thousand years. The mathematical science of logic likewise had revolutionary breakthroughs after a similarly long period of stagnation. But the most important step in science at this time were the ideas formulated by the creators of electrical science. Their work changed the face of physics and made possible for new technology to come about such as electric power, electrical telegraphy, the telephone, and radio.

===Developments in chemistry===
[[File:DIMendeleevCab.jpg|thumb|upright| right | [[Dmitri Mendeleev]]]]
In chemistry, [[Dmitri Mendeleev]], following the [[atomic theory]] of [[John Dalton]], created the first [[periodic table]] of [[Chemical element|elements]]. Other highlights include the discoveries unveiling the nature of atomic structure and matter, simultaneously with chemistry – and of new kinds of radiation. The theory that all matter is made of atoms, which are the smallest constituents of matter that cannot be broken down without losing the basic chemical and physical properties of that matter, was provided by [[John Dalton]] in 1803, although the question took a hundred years to settle as proven. Dalton also formulated the law of mass relationships. In 1869, [[Dmitri Mendeleev]] composed his [[periodic table]] of elements on the basis of Dalton's discoveries. The synthesis of [[urea]] by [[Friedrich Wöhler]] opened a new research field, [[organic chemistry]], and by the end of the 19th century, scientists were able to synthesize hundreds of organic compounds. The later part of the 19th century saw the exploitation of the Earth's petrochemicals, after the exhaustion of the oil supply from [[whaling]]. By the 20th century, systematic production of refined materials provided a ready supply of products which provided not only energy, but also synthetic materials for clothing, medicine, and everyday disposable resources. Application of the techniques of organic chemistry to living organisms resulted in [[physiological chemistry]], the precursor to [[biochemistry]].<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17152615/|title=History of biochemistry|first1=Parduman|last1=Singh|first2=H. S.|last2=Batra|first3=Manisha|last3=Naithani|date=6 January 2004|journal=Bulletin of the Indian Institute of History of Medicine (Hyderabad)|volume=34|issue=1|pages=75–86|via=PubMed|pmid=17152615}}</ref>

===Age of the Earth===
Over the first half of the 19th century, geologists such as [[Charles Lyell]], [[Adam Sedgwick]], and [[Roderick Murchison]] applied the new technique to rocks throughout Europe and eastern North America, setting the stage for more detailed, government-funded mapping projects in later decades. Midway through the 19th century, the focus of geology shifted from description and classification to attempts to understand ''how'' the surface of the Earth had changed. The first comprehensive theories of mountain building were proposed during this period, as were the first modern theories of earthquakes and volcanoes. [[Louis Agassiz]] and others established the reality of continent-covering [[ice age]]s, and "fluvialists" like [[Andrew Crombie Ramsay]] argued that river valleys were formed, over millions of years by the rivers that flow through them. After the discovery of [[radioactivity]], [[radiometric dating]] methods were developed, starting in the 20th century. [[Alfred Wegener]]'s theory of "continental drift" was widely dismissed when he proposed it in the 1910s,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pressbooks.howardcc.edu/worldgeography/chapter/chapter-3/|title=Chapter 3 Planet earth and Plate tectonics|first=R. Adam|last=Dastrup|via=pressbooks.howardcc.edu}}</ref> but new data gathered in the 1950s and 1960s led to the theory of [[plate tectonics]], which provided a plausible mechanism for it. Plate tectonics also provided a unified explanation for a wide range of seemingly unrelated geological phenomena. Since the 1960s it has served as the unifying principle in geology.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/plate-tectonics|title=Plate Tectonics|website=education.nationalgeographic.org}}</ref>

===Evolution and inheritance===
[[File:Darwin tree.png|upright|thumb|right|In mid-July 1837 [[Charles Darwin]] started his "B" notebook on the ''Transmutation of Species'', and on page 36 wrote "I think" above his first [[Tree of life (biology)|evolutionary tree]].]]
Perhaps the most prominent, controversial, and far-reaching theory in all of science has been the theory of [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]], which was independently formulated by [[Charles Darwin]] and [[Alfred Russel Wallace|Alfred Wallace]]. It was described in detail in Darwin's book ''[[The Origin of Species]]'', which was published in 1859. In it, Darwin proposed that the features of all living things, including humans, were shaped by natural processes over long periods of time. The theory of evolution in its current form affects almost all areas of biology.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dobzhansky |first1=Theodosius |year=1964 |title=Biology, Molecular and Organismic |url=http://people.ibest.uidaho.edu/~bree/courses/1_Dobzhansky_1964.pdf |journal=American Zoologist |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=443–452 |doi=10.1093/icb/4.4.443 |pmid=14223586 |access-date=5 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303220935/http://people.ibest.uidaho.edu/~bree/courses/1_Dobzhansky_1964.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=dead |doi-access=free}}</ref> Implications of evolution on fields outside of pure science have led to both [[Social effect of evolutionary theory|opposition and support]] from different parts of society, and profoundly influenced the popular understanding of "man's place in the universe". Separately, [[Gregor Mendel]] formulated the principles of inheritance in 1866, which became the basis of modern [[genetics]].

===Germ theory===
Another important landmark in medicine and biology were the successful efforts to prove the [[germ theory of disease]]. Following this, [[Louis Pasteur]] made the first [[vaccine]] against [[rabies]], and also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the [[optical isomerism|asymmetry of crystals]]. In 1847, Hungarian physician [[Ignaz Semmelweis|Ignác Fülöp Semmelweis]] dramatically reduced the occurrence of [[puerperal fever]] by simply requiring physicians to wash their hands before attending to women in childbirth. This discovery predated the [[germ theory of disease]]. However, Semmelweis' findings were not appreciated by his contemporaries and handwashing came into use only with discoveries by British surgeon [[Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister|Joseph Lister]], who in 1865 proved the principles of [[antisepsis]]. Lister's work was based on the important findings by French biologist [[Louis Pasteur]]. Pasteur was able to link microorganisms with disease, revolutionizing medicine. He also devised one of the most important methods in [[preventive medicine]], when in 1880 he produced a [[vaccine]] against [[rabies]]. Pasteur invented the process of [[pasteurization]], to help prevent the spread of disease through milk and other foods.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Campbell | first1=Neil A. | first2=Brad | last2=Williamson | first3=Robin J. | last3=Heyden | title=Biology: Exploring Life | publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall | year=2006 | url=http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html | isbn=978-0-13-250882-7 | oclc=75299209 | access-date=9 September 2008 | archive-date=2 November 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102041816/http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html | url-status=live }}{{page needed|date=April 2018}}</ref>

===Schools of economics===
[[Karl Marx]] developed an alternative economic theory, called [[Marxian economics]]. Marxian economics is based on the [[labor theory of value]] and assumes the value of good to be based on the amount of labor required to produce it. Under this axiom, [[capitalism]] was based on employers not paying the full value of workers labor to create profit. The [[Austrian School]] responded to Marxian economics by viewing [[entrepreneurship]] as driving force of economic development. This replaced the labor theory of value by a system of [[supply and demand]].

===Founding of psychology===
Psychology as a scientific enterprise that was independent from philosophy began in 1879 when [[Wilhelm Wundt]] founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research (in [[Leipzig]]). Other important early contributors to the field include [[Hermann Ebbinghaus]] (a pioneer in memory studies), [[Ivan Pavlov]] (who discovered [[classical conditioning]]), [[William James]], and [[Sigmund Freud]]. Freud's influence has been enormous, though more as cultural icon than a force in scientific psychology.{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}}

===Modern sociology===
Modern sociology emerged in the early 19th century as the academic response to the modernization of the world. Among many early sociologists (e.g., [[Émile Durkheim]]), the aim of sociology was in [[Structural functionalism|structuralism]], understanding the cohesion of social groups, and developing an "antidote" to social disintegration. [[Max Weber]] was concerned with the modernization of society through the concept of [[rationalization (sociology)|rationalization]], which he believed would trap individuals in an "iron cage" of rational thought. Some sociologists, including [[Georg Simmel]] and [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], used more [[microsociology|microsociological]], qualitative analyses. This microlevel approach played an important role in American sociology, with the theories of [[George Herbert Mead]] and his student [[Herbert Blumer]] resulting in the creation of the [[symbolic interactionism]] approach to sociology. In particular, just Auguste Comte, illustrated with his work the transition from a theological to a metaphysical stage and, from this, to a positive stage. Comte took care of the classification of the sciences as well as a transit of humanity towards a situation of progress attributable to a re-examination of nature according to the affirmation of 'sociality' as the basis of the scientifically interpreted society.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Natura, cultura e induzione nell'età delle scienze : fatti e idee del movimento scientifico in Francia e Inghilterra|last=Guglielmo|first=Rinzivillo|isbn=978-88-6812-497-7|location=Roma|pages=79–|oclc=913218837|date = 18 May 2015}}</ref>

===Romanticism===
The [[Romanticism in science|Romantic Movement]] of the early 19th century reshaped science by opening up new pursuits unexpected in the classical approaches of the Enlightenment. The decline of Romanticism occurred because a new movement, [[Positivism]], began to take hold of the ideals of the intellectuals after 1840 and lasted until about 1880. At the same time, the romantic reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers such as [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] and later [[Wilhelm Dilthey]] whose work formed the basis for the [[culture]] concept which is central to the discipline. Traditionally, much of the history of the subject was based on [[Colonialism|colonial]] encounters between Western Europe and the rest of the world, and much of 18th- and 19th-century anthropology is now classed as [[scientific racism]]. During the late 19th century, battles over the "study of man" took place between those of an "anthropological" persuasion (relying on [[anthropometry|anthropometrical]] techniques) and those of an "[[ethnology|ethnological]]" persuasion (looking at cultures and traditions), and these distinctions became part of the later divide between [[physical anthropology]] and [[cultural anthropology]], the latter ushered in by the students of [[Franz Boas]].