Editing Creativity (section)

== Organizational creativity ==
[[File:Training meeting in an ecodesign stainless steel company in brazil.jpg|thumb|right|Training meeting in an eco-design stainless steel company in [[Brazil]]. The leaders among other things wish to cheer and encourage the workers in order to achieve a higher level of creativity.]]

Various research studies set out to establish that organizational effectiveness depends to a large extent on the creativity of the workforce. For any given organization, measures of effectiveness vary, depending upon the organization's mission, environmental context, nature of work, the product or service it produces, and customer demands. Thus, the first step in evaluating organizational effectiveness is to understand the organization itself – how it functions, how it is structured, and what it emphasizes.{{Citation needed|date=June 2024}}

Similarly, social psychologists, organizational scientists, and management scientists (who research factors that influence creativity and innovation in teams and organizations) have developed integrative theoretical models that emphasize the elements of team composition, team processes, and organizational culture. These theoretical models also emphasize the mutually reinforcing relationships between those elements in promoting innovation.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | last1 = Woodman | first1 = R.W. | last2 = Sawyer | first2 = J.E. | last3 = Griffin | first3 = R.W. | s2cid = 15250032 | year = 1993 | title = Toward a theory of organizational creativity | journal = Academy of Management Review | volume = 18 | issue = 2| pages = 293–321 | doi=10.5465/amr.1993.3997517}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite journal | last1 = Paulus | first1 = P.B. | last2 = Dzindolet | first2 = M. | year = 2008 | title = Social influence, creativity and innovation | journal = Social Influence | volume = 3 | issue = 4| pages = 228–247 | doi=10.1080/15534510802341082| s2cid = 143485863 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite journal | last1 = Salazar | first1 = M.R. | last2 = Lant | first2 = T.K. | last3 = Fiore | first3 = S.M. | last4 = Salas | first4 = E. | s2cid = 643746 | year = 2012 | title = Facilitating innovation in diverse science teams through integrative capacity | journal = Small Group Research | volume = 43 | issue = 5| pages = 527–5 | doi=10.1177/1046496412453622}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite journal | last1 = Harvey | first1 = S | year = 2014 | title = Creative synthesis: Exploring the process of extraordinary group creativity | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_academy-of-management-review_2014-07_39_3/page/324 | journal = Academy of Management Review | volume = 39 | issue = 3| pages = 324–343 | doi=10.5465/amr.2012.0224}}</ref>

Research studies of the knowledge economy may be classified into three levels: macro, meso, and micro. Macro studies are at a societal or transnational level. Meso studies focus on organizations. Micro investigations center on the working of workers. There is also an interdisciplinary dimension when researching business,<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite book|last=Burton-Jones|first=Alan|url=https://academic.oup.com/book/8553|title=Knowledge Capitalism|date=1999-10-21|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198296225.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-829622-5}}
|2={{Cite journal|last1=Drucker|first1=David|last2=Drucker|first2=Erika|year=1999|title='There's no place like home' (a Victorian song title)|url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/globe_0398-3412_1999_num_139_1_1410|journal=Le Globe. Revue genevoise de géographie|volume=139|issue=1|pages=77–92|doi=10.3406/globe.1999.1410|issn=0398-3412}}
}}</ref> economics,<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Citation|last=Cortada|first=James W.|title=Rise of the Knowledge Worker |chapter=Introducing the Knowledge Worker|year=1998|chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780750670586500041|pages=xiii–xix|publisher=Elsevier|doi=10.1016/b978-0-7506-7058-6.50004-1|isbn=978-0-7506-7058-6|access-date=2021-06-26}}
|2={{Cite encyclopedia |last=Stenzl|first=Jürg|url=https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/display/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000023092|title=Reich, Willi|year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|encyclopedia=Oxford Music Online|doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.23092}}
|3={{Citation|last=Florida|first=Richard|chapter=Entrepreneurship, Creativity, and Regional Economic Growth|date=2003-10-27|title=The Emergence of Entrepreneurship Policy|pages=39–58|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511610134.003|isbn=978-0-521-82677-8}}
}}</ref> education,<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite book|url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9780203962664/world-yearbook-education-2007-lesley-farrell-tara-fenwick|title=World Yearbook of Education 2007|date=2007-03-12|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9780203962664|isbn=978-1-134-11806-9|editor-last=Farrell|editor-first=Lesley|editor-last2=Fenwick|editor-first2=Tara}}
|2={{Cite book|last1=Brown|first1=Phillip|url=https://academic.oup.com/book/6255|title=The Global Auction|last2=Lauder|first2=Hugh|last3=Ashton|first3=David|date=2010-12-03|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199731688.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-973168-8}}
}}</ref> human resource management,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Davenport|first=T.H.|year=2005|title=The coming commoditization of processes|journal=Harvard Business Review|volume=83|number=6|pages=100–108|pmid=15942994 }}</ref> knowledge and organizational management,<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite book|last=Alvesson|first=Mats|title=Knowledge work and knowledge-intensive firms|publisher=OUP Oxford|year=2004}}
|2={{Cite journal|last1=Arthur|first1=Michael B.|last2=DeFillippi|first2=Robert J.|last3=Lindsay|first3=Valerie J.|date=October 2008|title=On Being a Knowledge Worker|journal=Organizational Dynamics|volume=37|issue=4|pages=365–377|doi=10.1016/j.orgdyn.2008.07.005|issn=0090-2616}}
|3={{Cite book|editor1-last=Orr|editor1-first=Kevin Martin|editor2-last=Nutley|editor2-first=Sandra M.|editor3-last=Russell|editor3-first=Shona|editor4-last=Bain|editor4-first=Rod|editor5-last=Hacking|editor5-first=Bonnie|editor6-last=Moran|editor6-first=Clare|url=https://worldcat.org/title/945552692|title=Knowledge and practice in business and organisations|date=22 March 2016|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-37792-4|oclc=945552692}}
}}</ref> sociology, psychology, knowledge economy-related sectors – especially software,<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite book|last=Ó Riain|first=Sean|url=https://worldcat.org/title/776970799|title=The Politics of High Tech Growth: Developmental Network States in the Global Economy|year=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-511-49960-9|oclc=776970799}}
|2={{Cite journal|last=Nerland|first=Monika|date=2007-12-28|title=Knowledge Cultures and the Shaping of Work-based Learning: The Case of Computer Engineering|journal=Vocations and Learning|volume=1|issue=1|pages=49–69|doi=10.1007/s12186-007-9002-x|s2cid=61112900|issn=1874-785X|doi-access=free}}
}}</ref> and advertising.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite journal|last=Grabher|first=Gernot|date=November 2004|title=Temporary Architectures of Learning: Knowledge Governance in Project Ecologies|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0170840604047996|journal=Organization Studies|volume=25|issue=9|pages=1491–1514|doi=10.1177/0170840604047996|s2cid=145269032|issn=0170-8406}}
|2={{Cite book|last=Lury|first=Celia|date=2004-08-12|title=Brands|url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9780203495025/brands-celia-lury|doi=10.4324/9780203495025|isbn=978-1-134-52917-9}}
}}</ref>

=== Organizational culture ===
Supportive and motivational environments that create [[psychological safety]], encourage risk-taking, and tolerate mistakes increase team creativity.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> Organizations in which [[help-seeking]], [[Helping behavior|help-giving]], and [[collaboration]] are rewarded promote innovation by providing opportunities and contexts in which team processes that lead to collective creativity can occur.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hargadon | first1 = A. B. | last2 = Bechky | first2 = B. A. | s2cid = 6580938 | year = 2006 | title = When collections of creatives become creative collectives: A field study of problem solving at work | journal = Organization Science | volume = 17 | issue = 4| pages = 484–500 | doi=10.1287/orsc.1060.0200}}</ref> Additionally, [[leadership style]]s that downplay hierarchies or power differences within an organization, and empower people to speak up about their ideas or opinions, also help to create cultures that are conducive to creativity.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />

=== Team composition ===
The diversity of team members' backgrounds and knowledge can increase team creativity by expanding the collection of unique information that is available to the team and by introducing different perspectives that can be integrated in novel ways. However, under some conditions, diversity can also decrease team creativity by making it more difficult for team members to communicate about ideas and causing interpersonal conflicts between those with different perspectives.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Harvey | first1 = S | year = 2013 | title = A different perspective: The multiple effects of deep level diversity on group creativity | journal = Journal of Experimental Social Psychology | volume = 49 | issue = 5| pages = 822–832 | doi=10.1016/j.jesp.2013.04.004}}</ref> Thus, the potential advantages of diversity must be supported by appropriate team processes and organizational cultures in order to enhance creativity.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{cite journal | last1 = Paletz | first1 = S.B. | last2 = Schunn | first2 = C.D. | year = 2010 | title = A social-cognitive framework of multidisciplinary team innovation | journal = Topics in Cognitive Science | volume = 2 | issue = 1| pages = 73–95 | doi=10.1111/j.1756-8765.2009.01029.x| pmid = 25163622 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.611.2475 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Polzer | first1 = J.T. | last2 = Milton | first2 = L.P. | last3 = Swarm | first3 = W.B. Jr. | year = 2002 | title = Capitalizing on diversity: Interpersonal congruence in small work groups | journal = Administrative Science Quarterly | volume = 47 | issue = 2| pages = 296–324 | doi=10.2307/3094807| jstor = 3094807 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.198.3908 | s2cid = 152150563 }}</ref>

=== Team processes ===
Team communication [[norm (social)|norm]]s, such as respecting others' expertise, paying attention to others' ideas, expecting information sharing, tolerating disagreements, [[negotiation|negotiating]], remaining open to others' ideas, learning from others, and building on each other's ideas, increase team creativity by facilitating the social processes involved with [[brainstorming]] and [[problem solving]]. Through these processes, team members can access their collective pool of knowledge, reach shared understandings, identify new ways of understanding problems or tasks, and make new connections between ideas. Engaging in these social processes also promotes positive team [[Affect (psychology)|affect]], which facilitates collective creativity.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" />

=== Constraints ===
{{Main|Creative limitation}}

There is a long-standing debate on how material constraints (e.g., lack of money, materials, or equipment) affect creativity. In psychological and managerial research, there are two competing views. In one view, scholars propose a negative effect of material constraints on innovation and claim that material constraints starve creativity.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Amabile |first1=Teresa M. |last2=Conti |first2=Regina |last3=Coon |first3=Heather |last4=Lazenby |first4=Jeffrey |last5=Herron |first5=Michael |title=Assessing the Work Environment for Creativity |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/256995 |year=1996 |journal=Academy of Management Journal |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=1154–1184 |doi=10.2307/256995 |jstor=256995 |language=en |issn=0001-4273 |s2cid=144812471 |access-date=2025-01-04}}</ref> Proponents argue that adequate material resources are needed to engage in creative activities such as experimenting with new solutions and idea exploration.<ref name=":6" /> In an opposing view, scholars assert that people tend to stick to established routines or solutions as long as they are not forced to deviate from them by constraints.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite journal|last=Ward|first=T.B.|year=1994|title=Structured Imagination: the Role of Category Structure in Exemplar Generation|journal=Cognitive Psychology|language=en|volume=27|issue=1|pages=1–40|doi=10.1006/cogp.1994.1010|s2cid=54276064}}
|2={{Cite journal|last=Stokes|first=Patricia D.|year=2007|title=Using constraints to generate and sustain novelty|journal=Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=107–113|doi=10.1037/1931-3896.1.2.107|issn=1931-390X}}
|3={{Cite journal|last1=Moreau|first1=C. Page|last2=Dahl|first2=Darren W.|s2cid=2152095|year=2005|title=Designing the Solution: The Impact of Constraints on Consumers' Creativity|journal=Journal of Consumer Research|language=en|volume=32|issue=1|pages=13–22|doi=10.1086/429597|issn=0093-5301}}
|4={{Cite news|url=https://hbr.org/2011/01/the-number-one-key-to-innovati|title=The Number One Key to Innovation: Scarcity|last=Neren|first=Uri|date=2011-01-14|work=Harvard Business Review|access-date=2019-03-26|issn=0017-8012}}
}}</ref> For example, material constraints facilitated the development of [[jet engine]]s in [[World War II]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gibbert|first1=Michael|last2=Scranton|first2=Philip|year=2009|title=Constraints as sources of radical innovation? Insights from jet propulsion development|journal=Management & Organizational History|language=en|volume=4|issue=4|pages=385–399|doi=10.1177/1744935909341781|s2cid=144428010|issn=1744-9359}}</ref>

To reconcile these competing views, contingency models were proposed.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=Hoegl|first1=Martin|last2=Gibbert|first2=Michael|last3=Mazursky|first3=David|year=2008|title=Financial constraints in innovation projects: When is less more?|journal=Research Policy|language=en|volume=37|issue=8|pages=1382–1391|doi=10.1016/j.respol.2008.04.018}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last1=Weiss|first1=Matthias|last2=Hoegl|first2=Martin|last3=Gibbert|first3=Michael|year=2011|title=Making Virtue of Necessity: The Role of Team Climate for Innovation in Resource-Constrained Innovation Projects|journal=Journal of Product Innovation Management|language=en|volume=28|issue=s1|pages=196–207|doi=10.1111/j.1540-5885.2011.00870.x}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Weiss|first1=Matthias|last2=Hoegl|first2=Martin|last3=Gibbert|first3=Michael|year=2017|title=How Does Material Resource Adequacy Affect Innovation Project Performance? A Meta-Analysis|journal=Journal of Product Innovation Management|language=en|volume=34|issue=6|pages=842–863|doi=10.1111/jpim.12368}}</ref> The rationale behind these models is that certain [[contingency factors]] (e.g., creativity climate or creativity-relevant skills) influence the relationship between constraints and creativity.<ref name=":7" /> These contingency factors reflect the need for higher levels of motivation and skills when working on creative tasks under constraints.<ref name=":7" /> Depending on these contingency factors, there is either a positive or negative relationship between constraints and creativity.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" />