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== Sources == {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book|first=Nisrine|last=Abiad|title=Sharia, Muslim States and International Human Rights Treaty Obligations: A Comparative Study|publisher=British Institute of International and Comparative Law|year=2008}} * {{Cite book |last=Al-Jallad |first=Ahmad |url=https://brill.com/display/title/61413 |title=The Religion and Rituals of the Nomads of Pre-Islamic Arabia: A Reconstruction Based on the Safaitic Inscriptions |date=2022 |publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-50427-1 }} * {{Cite book|first=Kecia |last=Ali | author-link = Kecia Ali | year=2010 | title=Marriage and Slavery in Early Islam |publisher=Harvard University Press}} * {{Cite book|first=Abbas |last=Amanat |chapter=Preface|title=Shari'a: Islamic Law in the Contemporary Context|editor1=Abbas Amanat|editor2=Frank Griffel|publisher=Stanford University Press (Kindle Edition)|year=2009}} * {{Cite book | last = An-Na'im | first = Abdullahi Ahmed | author-link = Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na'im | editor-last = Witte | editor-first = John Jr. | editor2-last = Van der Vyver | editor2-first = Johan David | date = 1996 | title = Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective: Religious Perspectives | chapter = Islamic Foundations of Religious Human Rights | chapter-url = http://www.law.emory.edu/aannaim/pdfiles/dwnld15.pdf | volume = 1 | publisher = Martinus Nijhoff | place = The Hague / Boston / London | isbn = 9789041101761 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140116094053/http://www.law.emory.edu/aannaim/pdfiles/dwnld15.pdf | archive-date = 16 January 2014 }} * {{cite encyclopedia|first1=Maurits S. |last1=Berger|title=Fatwa|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics|editor=Emad El-Din Shahin|year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t342/e0003|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417225013/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t342/e0003|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 April 2019|url-access=subscription }} * {{Cite book|first=Jonathan Porter |last=Berkey | year=2003 | title=The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600–1800|publisher=Cambridge University Press }} * {{Cite book|first=Khalid |last=Blankinship| author-link = Khalid Yahya Blankinship | year=2008 | chapter=The early creed |editor=Tim Winter|title=The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology|publisher=Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition) }} * {{cite encyclopedia |first=Jonathan A. 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Bearman |editor2=Th. Bianquis |editor3=C.E. Bosworth |editor4=E. van Donzel |editor5=W.P. Heinrichs |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_8809}} * {{cite book|first=H. Patrick|last=Glenn|year=2014|title=Legal Traditions of the World – Sustainable Diversity in Law|edition=5th edition)|publisher=Oxford University Press}} {{ISBN|978-0199669837}} * {{cite book |first=Wael B. |last=Hallaq |author-link=Wael Hallaq |title=An Introduction to Islamic Law |year=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521678735}} * {{cite book|first=Wael B.|last=Hallaq|author-link = Wael Hallaq|title=Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations|year=2009b|publisher=Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition)}} * {{Cite encyclopedia| first=Wael B.|last=Hallaq|author-link = Wael Hallaq| entry=Islamic Law: History and Transformation|title=The New Cambridge History of Islam|volume=4|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |editor=Robert Irwin}} * Harnischfeger, Johannes (2008). 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Concepts of Fatwā|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|editor=John L. Esposito|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2009|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t236/e0243|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120012810/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t236/e0243|url-status=dead|archive-date=20 November 2015}} * {{cite encyclopedia |first=Ann Elizabeth |last=Mayer |title=Law. Modern Legal Reform |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |editor=John L. Esposito |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2009 |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0473#e0473-s5|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121033722/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0473#e0473-s5|url-status=dead|archive-date=21 November 2008}} * {{cite book|editor-last=Meri|editor-first=Josef W.|title=Medieval Islamic Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LaV-IGZ8VKIC|volume=2 L-Z, index|year=2006|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-96692-4}} ** {{harvc |last=Newman |first=Andrew J. |c=Shi'i Thought |in=Meri |year=2006}} * {{Cite encyclopedia|last=Messick|first=Brinkley|title=Fatwā, modern|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam|edition=3rd|editor1=Kate Fleet|editor2=Gudrun Krämer|editor3=Denis Matringe|editor4=John Nawas|editor5=Everett Rowson|publisher=Brill|year=2017|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27049}} * {{cite encyclopedia|first1=Brinkley|last1=Messick |first2=Joseph A.|last2=Kéchichian|title=Fatwā. Process and Function|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|editor=John L. Esposito|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2009|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t236/e0243|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120012810/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t236/e0243|url-status=dead|archive-date=20 November 2015}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Muslih|first1=Muhammad|last2=Browers|first2=Michaelle|title= Democracy |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|editor=John L. Esposito|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2009|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t236/e0185|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170611235451/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t236/e0185|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 June 2017}} * {{cite encyclopedia|first=Ronald L. |last=Nettler|title=Dhimmī|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|editor=John L. Esposito|year=2009|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001/acref-9780195305135-e-0194|url-access=subscription |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001 |isbn=9780195305135 }} * {{Cite book |first=Felicitas |last=Opwis |year=2007 |title=Islamic Law and Legal Change: The Concept of Maslaha in Classical and Contemporary Legal Theory |editor=Abbas Amanat |editor2=Frank Griffel |volume=Shari'a: Islamic Law in the Contemporary Context |publisher=Stanford University Press |edition=Kindle }} * {{cite book |first1=Jan Michiel |last1=Otto |year=2008 |title=Sharia and National Law in Muslim Countries: Tensions and Opportunities for Dutch and EU Foreign Policy |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |isbn=978-9087280482 |url=https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/20694/Sharia%20and%20national%20Law%20in%20Muslim%20countries.pdf}} * {{cite book |editor1-first=Jan Michiel |editor1-last=Otto |year=2010 |title=Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative Overview of the Legal Systems of Twelve Muslim Countries in Past and Present |publisher=Leiden University Press |isbn=978-9400600171}} * {{cite encyclopedia|first=Intisar A.|last=Rabb|title=Law. Courts|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|editor=John L. Esposito|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2009|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0473|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121033722/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0473|url-status=dead|archive-date=21 November 2008}} * {{cite encyclopedia |first=Intisar A. |last=Rabb |title=Fiqh |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |editor=John L. Esposito |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2009b |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001|isbn=9780195305135 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |first=Intisar A. |last=Rabb |title=Ijtihād |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |editor=John L. Esposito |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2009c |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001 |isbn=9780195305135 }} * {{cite encyclopedia|first=Intisar A.|last=Rabb|title=Law. Civil Law|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|editor=John L. Esposito|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2009d|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0473|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121033722/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0473|url-status=dead|archive-date=21 November 2008}} * {{Cite encyclopedia|last1=Schacht|first1=Joseph|last2=Layish|first2=Aharon| year=2000| title=Ṭalāḳ|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam| edition=2nd|publisher=Brill |editor1=P. Bearman|editor2= Th. Bianquis|editor3= C.E. Bosworth|editor4= E. van Donzel|editor5= W.P. Heinrichs|volume=10}} * {{cite encyclopedia |first=Irene |last=Schneider |title=Fiqh |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics |publisher=Oxford University Press |editor=Emad El-Din Shahin |year=2014 |doi=10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001|isbn=9780199739356 }} * {{Cite book |last=Sowerwine |first=James E. |title=Caliph and Caliphate |publisher=Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide. Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=9780199806003}} * {{cite encyclopedia|first=Devin J.|last=Stewart|title=Shari'a|editor=Gerhard Böwering, Patricia Crone|encyclopedia=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2013}} * {{cite encyclopedia|first=Silvia|last=Tellenbach|year=2015|title=Islamic Criminal Law|encyclopedia=The Oxford Handbook of Criminal Law|editor1=Markus D. Dubber|editor2= Tatjana Hornle|publisher= Oxford University Press}} {{ISBN|978-0199673599}} * {{Cite encyclopedia|first=Jörn|last=Thielmann|title=Ḥisba (modern times)|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam|edition=3rd|editor1=Kate Fleet|editor2=Gudrun Krämer|editor3=Denis Matringe|editor4=John Nawas|editor5=Everett Rowson|publisher=Brill|year=2017|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_30485}} * {{cite encyclopedia|first=Mathieu |last=Tillier |title=Courts|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics|editor=Emad El-Din Shahin|year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001/acref-9780199739356-e-0138|url-access=subscription |doi=10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001 |isbn=9780199739356 }} * {{Cite book|first=Knut S.|last=Vikør| year=2005 | title=Between God and the Sultan: A History of Islamic Law|publisher=Oxford University Press }} * {{cite encyclopedia |first=Knut S. |last=Vikør |title=Sharīʿah |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics |publisher=Oxford University Press |editor=Emad El-Din Shahin |year=2014 |url=http://bridgingcultures.neh.gov/muslimjourneys/items/show/226 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140604214623/http://bridgingcultures.neh.gov/muslimjourneys/items/show/226 |archive-date=4 June 2014|url-status=dead }} * {{cite encyclopedia |first=Farhat J. |last=Ziadeh |title=Uṣūl al-fiqh |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |editor=John L. Esposito |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2009 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001|isbn=9780195305135 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |first=Farhat J. |last=Ziadeh |title=Law. Sunnī Schools of Law |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |editor=John L. Esposito |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2009b |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0473|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121033722/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0473|url-status=dead|archive-date=21 November 2008}} * {{cite encyclopedia |first=Farhat J. |last=Ziadeh |title=Criminal Law |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |editor=John L. Esposito |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2009c |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0170|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081101103325/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0170|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 November 2008}} {{refend}}
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