Editing Reformation (section)

=== Thirty Years' War: 1618–1648 ===
[[File:Westfaelischer Friede in Muenster (Gerard Terborch 1648).jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Treaty of Westphalia]] allowed [[Calvinism]] to be freely exercised, reducing the need for [[Crypto-Calvinism]]]]

The Reformation and Counter-Reformation era conflicts are termed the [[European wars of religion]]. In particular, the [[Thirty Years' War]] (1618–48) devastated much of [[Early Modern history of Germany|Germany]], killing between 25 and 40% of its population.<ref>{{Cite web |date= 2023-05-16 |title=History of Europe {{!}} Summary, Wars, Map, Ideas, & Colonialism |url= https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe |access-date= 2023-05-18 |website= Britannica}}</ref> The Catholic [[House of Habsburg]] and its allies fought against the Protestant princes of Germany, supported at various times by Denmark, Sweden and [[Kingdom of France|France]]. The Habsburgs, who ruled Spain, Austria, the [[Lands of the Bohemian Crown|Crown of Bohemia]], [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]], [[Slovene Lands]], the [[Spanish Netherlands]] and much of Germany and Italy, were staunch defenders of the Catholic Church.

Two main tenets of the [[Peace of Westphalia]], which ended the Thirty Years' War, were:
* All parties would now recognise the [[Peace of Augsburg]] of 1555, by which each prince would have the right to determine the religion of his own state, the options being Catholicism, Lutheranism, and now Calvinism (the principle of {{Lang|la|[[cuius regio, eius religio]]}}).
* Christians living in principalities where their denomination was ''not'' the established church were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will.

The treaty also effectively ended the Papacy's pan-European political power. [[Pope Innocent X]] declared the treaty "null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all times" in his apostolic brief ''Zelo Domus Dei''. European sovereigns, Catholic and Protestant alike, ignored his verdict.{{sfn|Cross|2005}}{{page needed|date=March 2015}}