Editing Vaquero (section)

===Modern United States===
"Vaqueros invented the cowboy trade as we know it today." <ref>Freedman, R. (2001). In the days of the vaqueros: America's first true cowboys. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
</ref> The vaquero heritage had an influence on cowboy traditions which arose throughout the [[California]], [[Hawaii]], [[Montana]], [[New Mexico]], [[Texas]], and broader [[Western United States]], distinguished by their own local culture, geography and historical patterns of settlement.<ref name=free/> Cowboy styles reflect origins in Texas, the southeast, and Mexico, while buckaroos have adopted, quite remarkably intact, techniques from Spanish and Mexican California. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Starrs |first=Paul F. |last2=Huntsinger |first2=Lynn |date=October 1998 |title=The Cowboy & Buckaroo in American Ranch Hand Styles |url=https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/rangelands/article/viewFile/11398/10671 |journal=Ragelands}}</ref>  "The [[Southwestern United States]] has a ''caballero'' heritage that originates in [[New Mexico]]'s Hispanic and indigenous groups from the region, whereas the "Texas" ''vaquero'' tradition melded [[Tejanos|Tejano]] techniques with ranching styles of eastern states from [[Louisiana]] to [[Florida]], while the "buckaroo" or "California" tradition resembled [[Northern Mexico]] traditions.<ref name="Steele 2005 p. 18">{{cite book | last=Steele | first=T.J. | title=The Alabados of New Mexico | publisher=University of New Mexico Press | year=2005 | isbn=978-0-8263-2967-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8fGyC-Vn0FkC&pg=PA18 | access-date=2023-03-04 | page=18}}</ref><ref name="Nicholl 1901 p. 30">{{cite book | last=Nicholl | first=E.M. | title=Observations of a Ranchwoman in New Mexico | publisher=Editor Publishing Company | series=Nineteenth Century Collections Online (NCCO): Women: Transnational Networks | year=1901 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Rw1AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA30 | access-date=March 4, 2023 | page=30}}</ref><ref name="RWMiller 103">R.W. Miller, p. 103</ref> The modern distinction between ''caballero'', ''vaquero'', and ''buckaroo'' within American English reflects parallels between traditions of western horsemanship.<ref name=free>{{cite web|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/vaquero |title= Vaquero. |work= American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language |date=2009| publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company}}</ref><ref name="Yau Black Sparrow Press 1995 p. 94">{{cite book | last=Yau | first=J. | author2=Black Sparrow Press | title=Hawaiian Cowboys | publisher=Black Sparrow Press | year=1995 | isbn=978-0-87685-956-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7lMrjksL7h4C&pg=PA94 | access-date=2021-07-13 | page=94}}</ref>

====American Southwest====
[[File:Group of cowboys, New Mexico, U.S.A, by Jarvis, J. F. (John F.), b. 1850.jpg|thumb|Circa 1890 photo of a group of cowboys in [[New Mexico]]]]

In the [[Southwestern United States]], the [[Hispanos of New Mexico|Hispano]],<ref name="Lomelí Sorell Padilla 2002 p. 105">{{cite book | last1=Lomelí | first1=F.A. | last2=Sorell | first2=V.A. | last3=Padilla | first3=G.M. | title=Nuevomexicano Cultural Legacy: Forms, Agencies, and Discourse | publisher=University of New Mexico Press | series=Paso Por Aquí Series | year=2002 | isbn=978-0-8263-2224-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TX35Lxug5UC&pg=PA105 | access-date=2021-07-13 | page=105}}</ref><ref name="Vigil García Lamadrid 2014 p. 207">{{cite book | last1=Vigil | first1=C.F. | last2=García | first2=D. | last3=Lamadrid | first3=E.R. | title=New Mexican Folk Music/Cancionero del Folklor Nuevomexicano: Treasures of a People/El Tesoro del Pueblo | publisher=University of New Mexico Press | year=2014 | isbn=978-0-8263-4939-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LCvxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA207 | language=es | access-date=2021-07-13 | page=207}}</ref> [[Puebloans|Pueblo]],<ref name="American Cowboy p. 96">{{cite book | title=American Cowboy | publisher=Active Interest Media, Inc. | issn=1079-3690 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eeoCAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA96 | access-date=2021-07-13 | page=96}}</ref> [[Navajo]],<ref name="American Cowboy p. 44">{{cite book | title=American Cowboy | publisher=Active Interest Media, Inc. | issn=1079-3690 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ceoCAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA44 | access-date=2021-07-13 | page=44}}</ref> and [[Apache]]<ref name="Cadden 2011 p.">{{cite book | last=Cadden | first=D. | title=Tied Hard and Fast: Apache Adams-Big Bend Cowboy | publisher=Outskirts Press | year=2011 | isbn=978-1-4327-7117-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hLYmKQEACAAJ | access-date=2021-07-13 | page=}}</ref> traditions of [[Santa Fe de Nuevo México]] continue to hold significant influence over [[cowboy]] lifestyles in the region. This area became the [[New Mexico Territory]] and eventually the [[Southwestern United States|Southwestern US states]] of [[New Mexico]], [[Arizona]], and the southern portions of [[Colorado]], [[Nevada]], and [[Utah]].<ref name="Sinclair 1996 p.">{{cite book | last=Sinclair | first=J.L. | title=A Cowboy Writer in New Mexico: The Memoirs of John L. Sinclair | publisher=University of New Mexico Press | year=1996 | isbn=978-0-8263-1728-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BkBbAAAAMAAJ | access-date=2021-07-13 | page=}}</ref><ref name="Travis Abraham 2019 p. 130">{{cite book | last1=Travis | first1=R. | last2=Abraham | first2=K. | title=Forever and Ever, Amen: A Memoir of Music, Faith, and Braving the Storms of Life | publisher=Thomas Nelson | year=2019 | isbn=978-1-4002-0799-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etBgDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA130 | access-date=2021-07-13 | page=130}}</ref> Descendants of the Hispano and [[indigenous peoples of the North American Southwest|indigenous]] cowboys of former ''Nuevo México'' have long been referred to as ''caballero'' or ''caballera'', a Spanish term which translates to gentlemen or lady, but regionally means cowboy or cowgirl.<ref name="Laughlin 2017 p. 8">{{cite book | last=Laughlin | first=R. | title=Caballeros | publisher=Borodino Books | year=2017 | isbn=978-1-78720-565-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lg0qDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT8 | access-date=March 4, 2023 | page=8}}</ref><ref name="Robinson Ball 2003 p. 148"/><ref name="American Cowboy p. 56">{{cite book | title=American Cowboy | publisher=Active Interest Media, Inc. | issn=1079-3690 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eeoCAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA56 | access-date=March 4, 2023 | page=56}}</ref><ref name="Figueredo Figueredo 2014 p.">{{cite book | last=Figueredo | first=D.H. | title=Revolvers and Pistolas, Vaqueros and Caballeros: Debunking the Old West | publisher=ABC-CLIO | series=Intersections of Race, Ethnicity, and Culture | year=2014 | isbn=978-1-4408-2919-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HV9hBQAAQBAJ | access-date=March 4, 2023 | page=}}</ref>

Cowboys in the Southwest are associated with popularizing [[Native American jewelry]], [[Santo (art)#In the United States|Christian icons]], [[Cuisine of the Southwestern United States|Southwestern]] and [[New Mexican cuisine]], [[Western music (North America)|Western music]] styles of [[Tejano music|Tejano]] and [[New Mexico music]], along with other aspects into the general [[Western lifestyle]].<ref name="Pardue Sandfield Smith Heard Museum 2011">{{cite book | last1=Pardue | first1=D.F. | last2=Sandfield | first2=N.L. | last3=Smith | first3=C. | author4=Heard Museum | title=Native American Bolo Ties: Vintage and Contemporary Artistry | publisher=Museum of New Mexico Press | year=2011 | isbn=978-0-89013-534-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OcY8KQEACAAJ | access-date=March 26, 2023}}</ref><ref name="Montano 2001">{{cite book | last=Montano | first=M.C. | title=Tradiciones Nuevomexicanas: Hispano Arts and Culture of New Mexico | publisher=University of New Mexico Press | year=2001 | isbn=978-0-8263-2136-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=atVLm51yPrgC&pg=PA182 | access-date=March 26, 2023 | page=182}}</ref><ref name="Busby 2004 p. 168">{{cite book | last=Busby | first=M. | title=The Southwest | publisher=Greenwood Press | series=Greenwood encyclopedia of American regional cultures | year=2004 | isbn=978-0-313-32805-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lmg142dU3wQC&pg=PA168 | access-date=March 26, 2023 | page=168}}</ref>

====California tradition====
Cowboys of this tradition were dubbed ''buckaroos'' by English-speaking settlers. The words ''buckaroo'' and ''vaquero'' are still used on occasion in the [[Great Basin]], parts of California and, less often, in the [[Pacific Northwest]]. Elsewhere, the term "cowboy" is more common.<ref name="Buckaroos" /> The ''vaqueros'' of the Americas were the horsemen and cattle herders of [[Viceroyalty of New Spain|New Spain]], who first came to California with the [[Jesuit]] priest [[Eusebio Kino]] in 1687, and later with expeditions in 1769 and the [[Juan Bautista de Anza]] expedition in 1774.{{sfn|Clayton|2001|pp=10-11}} They were the first cowboys in the region.<ref name="Buckaroos" />

Even though the lands of the California ''vaqueros'' were fertile for farming, "it was not the disposition of Spanish Californians to over-exert themselves, so the raising of cattle, which was little drain on the energies, was a very much more agreeable way of life than farming ... there were few in the world who could surpass ... [the] vaquero in horsemanship."<ref>Cowan, Robert G. (1977) p. 5 "Ranchos of California." Academy Library Guild. Fresno, California.</ref> The future Mexican or Spanish vaqueros were placed in the saddle at 5 years of age, and sometimes earlier, and worked with young, often trained horses, which had originally arrived from Mexico<ref>Cowan p. 5, 7</ref> in the 18th century and flourished in [[California]] and bordering territories during the Spanish/Mexican era.<ref>[http://www.horsechannel.com/western-horse-training/vaquero-way-17722.aspx Stewart, Kara L. "The Vaquero Way", web site accessed November 18, 2007].</ref>

Although the Californios were considered by most foreigners as great horsemen, their treatment and method of training the horses was frowned upon. Englishman William Robert Garner mention that their method of breaking and training horses: “. . . ''likewise tends to break the spirit of the animals, and injure them in their joints.[…] when it is tired they take the saddle off it, and make it fast to a post, without anything to eat, and keep it there for four or five days, on nothing but water''.”<ref>{{cite book |last1=Garner |first1=William Robert |title=Letters from California, 1846-1847 |date=1970 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London |isbn=9780520015654 |page=107 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lo0moQ_PYPcC&dq=Then+their+method+of+breaking+them+in+likewise+tends+to+break+the+spirit+of+the+animals,+and+injure+them+in+their+joints.+They+will+take+a+wild+colt+and+put+the+saddle+on+it,&pg=PA107 |access-date=13 July 2023}}</ref> William Redmond Ryan, another English writer and immigrant, said that: “''of the wild horses subjected to this process of training, at least one-fourth are killed, and a still larger proportion seriously injured''.”<ref>{{cite book |last1=Redmond Ryan |first1=William |title=Personal Adventures in Upper and Lower California, in 1848-9 |date=1850 |publisher=William Shoberl |location=London |page=102 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o3oFAAAAQAAJ&q=horse+taming+californians |access-date=13 July 2023}}</ref> German immigrant Edward Vischer once commented that: “''The barbarous Californians look upon a horse as a useful commodity which is of little value and easily replaced''.”<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=Deb |title=Conquerors: The Roots of New World Horsemanship |date=1998 |publisher=Amigo Publications |isbn=9780965853309 |page=377 |edition=First |url=https://archive.org/details/conquerorsrootso0000benn/page/376/mode/2up?q=Vischer&view=theater |access-date=13 July 2023}}</ref>

Settlers originally arriving from the United States prior to 1846 (Mexican War) could marry a Californio woman or apply for Mexican citizenship in order to receive a [[land grant]], which would then almost require the new ''citizen'' to acquire the ''vaquero'' skills and life styles, a life style in which he would "invariably [keep] a horse saddled before his door, awaiting his pleasure.  If it was necessary to go more than fifty steps, he rode."<ref>Cowan p.8</ref>  After the conquest of California, with the conclusion of the [[Mexican–American War]] in 1848, Americans began to flood the newly conquered territory with immigration, for the 1849 [[goldrush]], which resulted in most of them being miners rather than livestock ranchers. The California vaquero or buckaroo, unlike the Texas cowboy, was considered a highly skilled worker, who usually stayed on the same ranch where he was born or had grown up. He generally married and raised a family.<ref name=free/> In addition, the geography and climate of much of California was dramatically different from that of Texas, allowing more intensive grazing with less [[open range]], plus cattle in California were marketed primarily at a regional level, without the need (nor, until much later, even the logistical possibility) to be driven hundreds of miles to railroad lines. Thus, a horse- and livestock-handling culture remained in California and the Pacific Northwest that retained a stronger direct Mexican and Spanish influence than that of Texas.

<gallery widths="165px" heights="200px">

File:Coleo a pie en Baja California Sur.png|Bull-tailing (coleo) on foot in [[Baja California Sur]] (1762). Baja Vaqueros were the original Californio Vaqueros.
File:California Vaqueros, 1854.jpg|[[Californio]] Vaqueros returned from the chase
File:MaclintockV.jpg|Finished "straight-up [[spade bit (horse)|spade bit]]" with California-style ''bosalito'' and bridle
File:Wade Saddle.jpg|A "Wade" saddle, popular with working ranch buckaroo tradition riders, derived from vaquero saddle designs
</gallery>

====Texas tradition====
[[File:Ranchero de Texas, 1828.jpg|thumb|upright|“Ranchero de Texas”. An 1828 [[Tejano]] Ranchero, by Lino Sanchez y Tapia. [[Charros]] from northern Mexico dressed differently, more modestly and less conspicuous than their southern counterparts]]
[[File:Bosal on horse.jpg|thumb|upright|A Texas-style [[bosal]] with added fiador, designed for starting an unbroke horse]]

The Texas tradition arose from a combination of cultural influences, as well as the need to adapt to the geography and climate of west Texas and, later, the need to conduct long [[cattle drives]] to get animals to market. In the early 1800s, the Spanish Crown, and later, independent [[Mexico]], offered [[empresario|''empresario'' grants]] in what would later be [[Texas]] to non-citizens, such as settlers from the United States. In 1821, [[Stephen F. Austin]] and his East Coast comrades became the first Anglo-Saxon community in Texas. Following [[Texas Revolution|Texas independence]] in 1836, even more Americans immigrated into the ''empresario'' ranching areas of Texas. Here the settlers were strongly influenced by the Mexican ''vaquero'' culture, borrowing [[vocabulary]] and [[attire]] from their counterparts, but also retaining some of the livestock-handling traditions and culture of the Eastern United States and [[Great Britain]].

Following the [[American Civil War]], vaquero [[culture]] diffused eastward and northward, combining with the cow herding traditions of the eastern United States that evolved as settlers moved west. Other influences developed out of Texas as cattle trails were created to meet up with the [[railroad]] lines of [[Kansas]] and [[Nebraska]], in addition to expanding ranching opportunities in the [[Great Plains]] and [[Rocky Mountain Front]], east of the [[Continental Divide]].<ref name=Vernam289>Vernam, p. 289.</ref> The Texas-style vaquero tended to be an itinerant single male who moved from ranch to ranch.<ref name=free/>

====Hawaiian paniolo====
The [[Native Hawaiians|Hawaiian]] cowboy, the ''paniolo'', is also a direct descendant of the ''vaquero'' of California and Mexico. Experts in Hawaiian etymology believe "Paniolo" is a Hawaiianized pronunciation of ''español''. (The [[Hawaiian language]] has no /s/ sound, and all [[syllable]]s and words must end in a vowel.) Paniolo, like cowboys on the mainland of North America, learned their skills from Mexican ''vaqueros''.

Curtis J. Lyons, scientist and assistant government surveyor, wrote in 1892 for the [[Hawaiian Historical Society]], that:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lyons |first1=Curtis J. |title=Traces of Spanish Influence in the Hawaiian Islands |journal=Hawaiian Historical Society |date=1892 |pages=26, 27 |url=https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/e1fdedc1-2e4e-4646-9be5-ee7369cf86f0/content |access-date=7 October 2023}}</ref>

{{quote|“. . . at Waimea, the Mexican Hispano-Indian found his home and occupation. He was called by the Hawaiian, specifically, Huanu, Hoke, Hoakina, etc., these names of course meaning Juan, Jose, Joachin, etc. He had with him sometimes full-blooded Indians of Mexican origin, whom I saw in my boyhood. He was called generically "Paniolo" or "Espagnol," the word that now-a-days means "cow-boy." He brought with him the Mexican saddle in all its rich adornment of stamped bull-hide leather, and stirrups broad-winged. He brought the jingling spur with bells of hand-wrought steel. He brought the hair-rope in strands of alternate black and white, and the hand- whirled wheel for twisting it; also the hand-wrought bit, not so crude as it looked to be, and a necessity in bullock-hunting. All this away back in the thirties, long before the birth of the modern cow-boy. […] Last but not least, the lasso or lariat, braided evenly and lovingly from four strands of well-chosen hide, then well-stretched and oiled, coiled in the same left hand, that with the little and third ringer held the finely braided bridle rein; (Mexican too this was, and Mexican the causing of the rein to bear on the horse's neck, instead of to pull on the mouth.) A more forminable weapon this lasso than revolver or Winchester; and no artist has yet mastered the problem of depicting the throwing of the lasso, not even the inimitable Frederick Remington. […] Mexican saddles, bits and bridles, spurs and pack-saddles were long a specialty of Waimea manufacture. The tan-pit, the black- smith's shop, the saddler's shop, and shoemaker's too, all flour- ished as home industries—now, alas, no longer. The wire fence is limiting the size of the "drive in," the hoohuli bipi,—"round-up," the Americans call it. The merchant ship brings the cheap spur and inferior saddle for the degenerate paniolo of 1892; and so on—in short, the times are changed.}}

By the early 19th century, Capt. [[George Vancouver|George Vancouver's]] gift of cattle to [[Pai`ea Kamehameha]], monarch of the Hawaiian Kingdom, had multiplied astonishingly, and were wreaking havoc throughout the countryside. About 1812, John Parker, a sailor who had jumped ship and settled in the islands, received permission from Kamehameha to capture the wild cattle and develop a beef industry.

The Hawaiian style of ranching originally included capturing wild cattle by driving them into pits dug in the forest floor. Once tamed somewhat by hunger and thirst, they were hauled out up a steep ramp, and tied by their horns to the horns of a tame, older steer (or [[ox]]) that knew where the [[paddock]] with food and water was located. The industry grew slowly under the reign of Kamehameha's son Liholiho ([[Kamehameha II]]). Later, Liholiho's brother, Kauikeaouli ([[Kamehameha III]]), visited California, then still a part of Mexico. He was impressed with the skill of the Mexican vaqueros, and invited several to Hawaii in 1832 to teach the Hawaiian people how to work cattle.

Even today, traditional paniolo dress, as well as certain styles of Hawaiian formal attire, reflect the Spanish heritage of the vaquero.<ref name="GenegabusPanioloWays">{{cite web |url= http://starbulletin.com/2003/03/17/features/story1.html |title= Paniolo Ways: Riding the range is a lifestyle that reaches back 170 years in Hawaii |author= Jason Genegabus. Photos by Ken Ige |work= [[Honolulu Star-Bulletin]] |date= 17 March 2003 |access-date= 6 July 2011 |archive-date= 24 June 2008 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080624233722/http://starbulletin.com/2003/03/17/features/story1.html |url-status= dead }}</ref> The traditional Hawaiian saddle, the ''noho lio,''<ref name="KaheleCecilHanaHou">{{cite web |url= http://www.hanahou.com/pages/Magazine.asp?Action=DrawArticle&ArticleID=467&MagazineID=28 |title= Way of the Noho Lio |author= Rose Kahele. Photos by Ann Cecil |work= [[Hana Hou!]] Vol. 9, No. 3 |date= June–July 2006 }}</ref> and many other tools of the cowboy's trade have a distinctly Mexican/Spanish look and many Hawaiian ranching families still carry the names of the vaqueros who married Hawaiian women and made Hawaii their home.