Editing Tyre, Lebanon (section)

== Historical and cultural heritage ==
[[File:Tyre in Lebanon marking as protected cultural property.jpg|thumb|Sign marking Tyre according to the 1954 [[Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]]. Note the ruins of the Mamluk House (left) which has been rehabilitated since.]]

Arguably the most lasting Phoenician legacy for the Tyrian population has been the linguistic mark that the [[Syriac language|Syriac]] and [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] languages have left on the Arabic spoken in the region of Tyre.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mroue |first=Youssef |year=2010 |title=Highlights of the Achievements and Accomplishments of the Tyrian Civilization and Discovering the Lost Continent |location=Pickering |pages=9–34}}</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=July 2024}} Most notably, the widely used term "Ba'ali" – which is used especially to describe vegetables and fruits from rain-fed, untreated agricultural production – originates from the Baal religion.<ref name="Badawi-2008">{{Cite book|title=Tyr - L'histoire d'une Ville|last=Badawi|first=Ali Khalil|publisher=Municipalité de Tyr / Tyre Municipality / Baladia Sour|year=2008|location=Tyre/Sour/Tyr|pages=80–103}}</ref> The Tyrian municipality of [[Ain Baal]] is apparently also named after the Phoenician deity.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/surveyofwesternp00conduoft|title=The Survey of Western Palestine: Arabic and English Name Lists Collected During the Survey by Lieutenants Conder and Kitchener, R. E. Transliterated and Explained by E.H. Palmer. Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund.|last=Palmer|first=Edward|publisher=Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund|year=1881|location=London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/surveyofwesternp00conduoft/page/2 2]}}</ref> The most visible part of ancient and medieval history on the other side have been the archaeological sites though:

The first archaeological excavations were by Ernest Renan in 1860 and 1861.<ref>Renan, Ernest, "Mission de Phénicie", Paris: Imprimerie impériale, 1864</ref> He was followed in the 1870s by Johannes Nepemuk Sepp. His most notable work was excavating at the cathedral in an attempt to find the bones of [[Frederick Barbarossa]].<ref>Sepp, J. N., "Meerfahrt nach Tyrus zur Ausgrabung der Kathedrale mit Barbarossa's Grab", Leipzig: Seemann, 1879</ref> More work was undertaken in 1903 by the Greek archaeologist [[Theodore Makridi]], curator of the Imperial Museum at [[Constantinople]]. Important findings like fragments of marble sarcophagi were sent to the Ottoman capital.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Jidejian|first=Nina|title=TYRE Through The Ages|publisher=Librairie Orientale|year=2018|isbn=9789953171050|edition=3rd|location=Beirut|pages=13–17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tahan |first=Lina G. |date=2017 |title=Trafficked Lebanese Antiquities: Can They Be Repatriated from European Museums? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/jeasmedarcherstu.5.1.0027 |journal=Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology & Heritage Studies |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=27–35 |doi=10.5325/jeasmedarcherstu.5.1.0027 |jstor=10.5325/jeasmedarcherstu.5.1.0027 |issn=2166-3548}}</ref>

[[File:TyreAlMinaCitySite MauriceChehabExcavationsRemnants-Rail-Wheelbarrow RomanDeckert23082019.jpg|thumb|Rusty relics from Chehab's excavations at Al Mina site]]

An archaeological survey of Tyre was done by a French team under the leadership of Denyse Le Lasseur in 1921.<ref>Le Lasseur, D., "Mission archéologique à Tyr.", Syria 3, 1–26, 116–33, 1922</ref> It was followed by another mission between 1934 and 1936 that included aerial surveys and diving expeditions. It was led by the [[Jesuit]] missionary [[Antoine Poidebard]], a pioneer of [[aerial archaeology]].<ref>Poidebard, A.,  "Un  grand port  disparu: Tyr. Recherches aeriennes et  sous-marines, 1934-6", Bibliothèque archéologique et historique 29. Paris, 1939.</ref>

Large-scale excavations started in 1946 under the leadership of [[Emir]] [[Maurice Chehab|Maurice Chéhab]] (1904–1994), "the father of modern Lebanese archaeology" who for decades headed the Antiquities Service in Lebanon and was the curator of the [[National Museum of Beirut]]. His teams uncovered most remains in the [[Tyre Necropolis |Al Bass]]/[[Tyre Hippodrome |Hippodrome]] and the City Site/Roman baths.<ref name="Boschloos-2016" /><ref>Chéhab, Maurice H., "Fouilles de Tyr IV, La nécropole", Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth 36, 1986</ref><ref>Chéhab, M., "Fouilles de Tyr: la nécropole", Bulletin du Musée de Beirut 35, Beirut, 1985</ref>

During the 1960s, [[Honor Frost]] (1917–2010) – the [[Cyprus]]-born pioneer of [[underwater archaeology]] initiated several investigations "aimed at identifying and documenting the significant archaeological potential for harbour facilities within coastal Tyre". Based on the results, she suggested that the Al Mobarakee Tower may actually date back to Hellenistic times.<ref name="Noureddine-2018">{{Cite journal|last1=Noureddine|first1=Ibrahim|last2=Mior|first2=Aaron|year=2018|title=Archaeological Survey of the Phoenician Harbour at Tyre, Lebanon|url=https://www.academia.edu/38076831|journal=Bulletin d'Archéologie et d'Architecture Libanaises |volume=18|pages=95–112|via=Academia.edu}}</ref>

All those works stopped though soon after the 1975 beginning of the Civil War and many records were lost.<ref name="Boschloos-2016">{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311583768|title=Belgian archaeologists in Tyre (Lebanon): UNESCO Heritage, Phoenician Seals and Ancient Curses|last=Boschloos|first=Vanessa|date=January 2016|website=ResearchGate|pages=1–3|format=PDF|access-date=7 October 2019}}</ref>

In 1984, the [[UNESCO|United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)]] declared Tyre a [[World Heritage Site]] in an attempt to halt the damage being done to the archaeological sites by the armed conflict and by anarchic urban development.<ref name="Carter-2004" />

In the late 1980s, "clandestine excavations" took place in the [[Tyre Necropolis |Al-Bass cemetery]], which "flooded the antiquities market".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Abousamra|first1=Gaby|last2=Lemaire|first2=André|year=2013|title=Astarte in Tyre According to New Iron Age Funerary Stelae|journal=Die Welt des Orients|publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht (GmbH & Co. KG)|volume=43, H. 2|issue=2|pages=153–157|doi=10.13109/wdor.2013.43.2.153|jstor=23608852}}</ref>

Regular excavation activities only started again in 1995 under the supervision of Ali Khalil Badawi.<ref>{{Cite book|title=TYRE|last=Badawi|first=Ali Khalil|publisher=Al-Athar Magazine|year=2018|edition=4th|location=Beirut|pages=62, 74, 102}}</ref> Shortly afterwards, an Israeli bomb destroyed an apartment block in the city and evidence for an early church was revealed underneath the rubble. Its unusual design suggests that this was the site of the Cathedral of Paulinus which had been inaugurated in 315 CE.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://architectureandasceticism.exeter.ac.uk/items/show/204|title=The Church of Paulinus, Tyre|last=Loosley|first=Emma|date=n.d.|website=Architecture and Asceticism|access-date=22 November 2019}}</ref>

In 1997, the first Phoenician cremation cemetery was uncovered in the [[Tyre Necropolis |al-Bass site]], near the Roman necropolis.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A visit to the Museum... The short guide of the National Museum of Beirut, Lebanon|publisher=Ministry of Culture/Directorate General of Antiquities|year=2008|isbn=978-9953-0-0038-1|location=Beirut|pages=37, 39, 49, 73, 75}}</ref> Meanwhile, Honor Frost mentored local Lebanese archaeologists to conduct further underwater investigations, which in 2001 confirmed the existence of a human-made structure within the northern harbour area of Tyre.<ref name="Noureddine-2018" />

In 2003, Randa Berri, president of the National Association for the Preservation of South Lebanon's Archaeology and Heritage and wife of [[Nabih Berri]], veteran leader of the [[Amal Movement]] and longtime Speaker of the Parliament of Lebanon, patronized a plan to renovate Khan Sour / Khan Al Askaar, the former Ma'ani palace, and convert it into a museum.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=15 July 2003|title=Dignitaries attend launching of Tyre khan renovation plan|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Lebanon-News/2003/Jul-15/111133-news-in-brief-published-on-15072003.ashx|access-date=2021-09-03|journal=The Daily Star|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183406/http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Lebanon-News/2003/Jul-15/111133-news-in-brief-published-on-15072003.ashx|url-status=dead}}</ref> As of 2019, nothing was done in that regard and the ruins have kept on crumbling.

The hostilities of the [[2006 Lebanon War]] put the ancient structures of Tyre at risk. This prompted [[UNESCO]]'s Director-General to launch a "Heritage Alert" for the site.<ref>{{cite news|author1=Koïchiro Matsuura|author2=The Director-General of UNESCO|date=11 August 2006|title=UNESCO Director-General Launches "Heritage Alert" for the Middle East|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/276}}</ref> Following the cessation of hostilities in September 2006, a visit by conservation experts to Lebanon observed no direct damage to the ancient city of Tyre. However, the bombardment had damaged frescoes in a Roman funerary cave at the [[Tyre Necropolis]]. Additional site degradation was also noted, including "the lack of maintenance, the decay of exposed structures due to lack of rainwater regulation and the decay of porous and soft stones".<ref name="icomos118" />
[[File:TyreCitySite ArchaeologicalExcavations UniversityOfLyon RomanDeckert09102019.jpg|thumb|Archaeologists from the University of Lyon at the Al Mina/City site in 2019]]
Since 2008, a [[Lebanese-French|Lebanese French]] team under the direction by Pierre-Louis Gatier of the [[University of Lyon]] has been conducting archaeological and topographical work. When international archeological missions in [[Syria]] came to a halt after 2012 due to the war there, some of them instead started excavations in Tyre, amongst them a team headed by [[Leila Badre]], director of the [[Archaeological Museum of the American University of Beirut|Archeological Museum of the American University of Beirut]] ([[American University of Beirut|AUB]]), and Belgian archaeologists.<ref name="Boschloos-2016" />

Threats to Tyre's ancient [[cultural heritage]] include development pressures and the illegal antiquities trade.<ref>{{cite news|title=Lebanon's Archaeological Heritage|author=Helga Seeden|date=2 December 2000}}</ref> A highway, planned for 2011, was expected to be built in areas that are deemed archaeologically sensitive.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=UNESCO World Heritage Centre - State of Conservation (SOC 2011) Tyre (Lebanon) |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/soc/340/ |access-date=2024-05-28 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}</ref> A small-scale geophysical survey indicated the presence of archaeological remains at proposed construction sites. The sites have not been investigated. Despite the relocation of a proposed traffic interchange, the lack of precise site boundaries confuses the issue of site preservation.<ref name="icomos118">Toubekis, Georgios (2010). "Lebanon: Tyre (Sour)". In Christoph Machat, Michael Petzet and John Ziesemer (Eds.), {{cite web |url=http://www.international.icomos.org/risk/world_report/2008-2010/H@R_2008-2010_final.pdf |title=Heritage at Risk: ICOMOS World Report hey a report 2008-2010 on Monuments and Sites in Danger }}. Berlin: hendrik Bäßler verlag, 2010, pg. 118.</ref>
[[File:Tyre KhanRabu-ruins MainroomBalcony RomanDeckert21112019.jpg|thumb|The ruins of Khan Rabu]]
A 2018 study of Mediterranean world heritage sites found that Tyre's City site has "the highest risk of coastal erosion under current climatic conditions, in addition to 'moderate' risk from extreme sea levels."<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Lebanon-News/2018/Nov-01/468042-tyres-historic-sites-in-fight-to-stay-above-the-water.ashx|title=Tyre's historic sites in fight to stay above the water|last=Mukhamdov|first=Anton|date=1 November 2018|journal=The Daily Star|access-date=24 September 2019|archive-date=24 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190924182452/http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Lebanon-News/2018/Nov-01/468042-tyres-historic-sites-in-fight-to-stay-above-the-water.ashx|url-status=dead}}</ref> Further coastal inspection was conducted in 2019, leading to a new hypothesis about the local relative sea level rise and to discovery of yet unreported submerged coastal structures.<ref>Goiran, J-P., et al., 2021, Evolution of Sea Level at Tyre During Antiquity, Bulletin d'Archéologie et d'Architecture Libanaises, Vol. BAAL 21, (p 305-317).</ref>

Like many of the cities in the Levant and in [[Lebanon]], the architecture since the [[Lebanese Civil War]] in the 1970s has been of poor quality, which tend to threaten the cultural heritage in the built environment before the war.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ancient Tyre |url=https://www.wmf.org/project/ancient-tyre |access-date=2024-05-28 |website=World Monuments Fund |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=UNESCO Beirut organizes a technical workshop on the conservation and restoration works of Baalbek and Tyre World Heritage sites |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1661/ |access-date=2024-05-28 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}</ref> Meanwhile, historical buildings from the Ottoman period like Khan Rabu and Khan Sour / Khan Ashkar have partly collapsed after decades of total neglect and lack of any maintenance whatsoever.<ref name=":2" />

In 2013, the International Association to Save Tyre (IAST) made headlines when it launched an online [[raffle]] in association with [[Sotheby's]] to fund the artisans' village Les Ateliers de Tyr at the outskirts of the city. Participants could purchase tickets for 100 euros to win the 1914 ''Man in the Opera Hat'' painting by [[Pablo Picasso]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.businessnews.com.lb/cms/Story/StoryDetails/3637/$1-million-Picasso-on-auction|title=$1&nbsp;million Picasso on auction – Proceeds to finance projects in Beirut and Tyre|last=Freifer|first=Rana|date=10 December 2013|website=BusinessNews.com.lb|access-date=27 November 2019}}</ref> The proceeds totaled US$5.26 million. The painting was won by a 25-year-old fire-safety official from [[Pennsylvania]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bishara|first=Hakim|date=21 May 2020|title=A Son Gifted His Mother a Raffle Ticket, Winning Her a $1.1M Picasso Painting|url=https://hyperallergic.com/565697/pablo-picasso-raffle-winner-nature-morte/|access-date=3 June 2020|website=HYPERALLERGIC}}</ref> IAST president [[Maha al-Khalil Chalabi]] is a daughter of feudal lord and politician [[Kazem al-Khalil|Kazem el-Khalil]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lorientlejour.com/article/1054203/maha-el-khalil-chalabi-gardienne-du-patrimoine.html|title=Liban: Maha el-Khalil Chalabi, gardienne du patrimoine|last=ABI AKL|first=Yara|date=29 May 2017|website=L'Orient-Le Jour|language=fr|access-date=27 November 2019}}</ref> In September 2017, she opened "Les Atelier", which is located in the middle of an orange grove covering an area of 7.300 m<sup>2</sup> at the northeastern outskirts of Tyre.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Nehmeh|first=Rafah|date=2019-03-12|title=Celebrating Phoenician Crafts At Les Ateliers De Tyr|url=https://www.lebanontraveler.com/en/magazine/les-ateliers-de-tyr/|access-date=2021-09-03|website=Lebanon Traveler|language=en-US}}</ref>

During the [[2024 Israeli invasion of Lebanon]], [[UNESCO]] gave enhanced protection to 34 cultural sites in Lebanon including the Tyre archaeological sites to safeguard them from [[Destruction of cultural heritage during the Israeli invasion of Lebanon|damage]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Cultural property under enhanced protection Lebanon |url=https://www.unesco.org/en/culture/cultural-property-under-enhanced-protection-lebanon |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20241231104017/https://www.unesco.org/en/culture/cultural-property-under-enhanced-protection-lebanon |archive-date=2024-12-31 |access-date=2025-01-01 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Lebanon: 34 cultural properties placed under enhanced protection |url=https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/lebanon-34-cultural-properties-placed-under-enhanced-protection |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20241227163437/https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/lebanon-34-cultural-properties-placed-under-enhanced-protection |archive-date=2024-12-27 |access-date=2025-01-01 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Biblical description ===
[[File:John Martin - Destruction of Tyre - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|The prophesied destruction of Tyre as painted by [[John Martin (painter)|John Martin]].]]

The city of Tyre appears in many biblical traditions:

==== Hebrew Bible / Old Testament ====
* According to Joshua 19, "the fortified city of Tyre" was allotted to the [[Tribe of Asher]].<ref>{{bibleverse|Joshua|19:29|}}</ref>
* [[King Hiram I]] of Tyre allied himself with [[King David|David]] and [[King Solomon|Solomon]] in 2 Samuel, 1 Kings and 1 Chronicles.<ref>{{bibleverse|2|Samuel|5:11|KJV|}}, {{bibleverse|1|Kings|5:1|KJV|}}, and {{bibleverse|1|Chronicles|14:1|KJV|}}</ref> Hiram provided architects, workmen, [[Cedar of Lebanon|cedar wood]], and gold to build the royal palace in [[Jerusalem]], as well as the [[Solomon's Temple|Temple]].<ref>{{harvnb|Dever|2005|p=97}}; {{harvnb|Mendels|1987|p=131}}; {{harvnb|Brand|Mitchell|2015|p=1538}}</ref>
*Tyre is listed among an alliance of ten nations that would conspire against God's people.<ref>{{Bibleref2|Psalm|83:3-8}}</ref> 
* Tyre is mentioned in the [[Book of Isaiah]] as being forgotten for 70 years when her "fortress is destroyed" and after which "her profit and her prostitute's wages will be sacred to the Lord."<ref>{{Bibleref2|Isaiah|23}}</ref>
*The [[Book of Joel]] groups Tyre, [[Sidon]] and [[Philistia]] together and it states that the people of [[Judah (son of Jacob)|Judah]] and Jerusalem were sold to the Greeks, and there would thus be punishment because of it.<ref>{{Bibleref2|Joel|3:4–8}}</ref>
*Tyre is also mentioned in the [[Book of Ezekiel]],<ref>{{Bibleref2|Ezekiel|26-28}}</ref> [[Book of Amos]],<ref>{{Bibleref2|Amos|1:9–10}}</ref> the [[Psalms]], and the [[Book of Zechariah]]<ref>{{Bibleref2|Zechariah|9:3–4}}</ref> which [[Prophecy|prophesied]] its destruction.

==== New Testament ====
* [[Jesus]] visited the region or "coasts" ([[King James Version]]) of Tyre and [[Sidon]]<ref name="ReferenceA">{{bibleref|Matthew|15:21}}; {{bibleref|Mark|7:24}}</ref> and from this region many came forth to hear him preaching,<ref>Mark 3:8; Luke 6:17</ref> leading to the stark contrast in [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 11:21<ref>{{bibleref|Matthew|11:21–23}}</ref> to his reception in [[Korazin]] and [[Bethsaida]].
*[[Herod the Great|Herod]] was said to be angry with the people of Tyre and Sidon and he delivered a public address upon which he was struck down by God after not giving glory to him once he received praise arrogantly according to the [[Acts of the Apostles|Book of Acts]].<ref>{{Bibleref2|Acts|12:19–24}}</ref> The same book describes Paul's voyage to Tyre where he stayed for seven days.<ref>{{Bibleref2|Acts|21:1–7}}</ref>
* In the [[Book of Revelation]],<ref>{{bibleverse||Revelation|18|KJV}}</ref> chapter 18 alludes extensively to the mercantile description of Tyre in Ezekiel 26–28.

=== Other writings ===
* ''[[Apollonius of Tyre]]'' is the subject of an ancient short novella, popular in the Middle Ages. Existing in numerous forms in many languages, the text is thought to be translated from an ancient Greek manuscript, now lost.
* ''[[Pericles, Prince of Tyre]]'' is a [[Jacobean era|Jacobean]] play written at least in part by [[William Shakespeare]] and [[George Wilkins]]. It is included in modern editions of his collected works despite questions over its authorship.
* In 19th-century Britain, Tyre was several times taken as an [[wikt:exemplar|exemplar]] of the mortality of great power and status, for example by [[John Ruskin]] in the opening lines of ''[[The Stones of Venice (book)|''The Stones of Venice'']]'' and by [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s [[Recessional (poem)|Recessional]].
* Tyrus is the title and subject of a poem by the [[Lake District|Cumbrian]] poet [[Norman Nicholson]] in his collection 'Rock Face' of 1948.
* The French [[comic book artist]] [[Albert Uderzo]] published in 1981 ''[[Asterix and the Black Gold]]'' which describes [[Asterix]]'s and [[Obelix]]'s voyage to the Middle East featuring [[James Bond]] and biblical themes: in their quest for petroleum, they sail on board a Phoenician ship, but the Roman regime closes off the ports of Tyre in order to deny their landing.
* In 2015, the [[French people in Lebanon|French Lebanese]] artist Joseph Safieddine published the [[graphic novel]] drama ''Yallah Bye'' which offers an account of his family's fate during the 2006 war between Israel and [[Hezbollah]], when they sought refuge in the Christian quarter of Tyre. An English version followed in 2017 and an Arabic one in 2019.

=== Astronomical objects ===
{{multiple image
| direction         = horizontal
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| total_width       = 440
| image1            = PIA01633 Tyre impact structure Europa.jpg
| caption1          = Tyre on Europa
| image2            = 209 Dido.png
| caption2          = The orbit of 209 Dido
| alt1              = 
}}

A multi-ring structured region on [[Europa (moon)|Europa]], the smallest of the four [[Galilean moons]] orbiting [[Jupiter]], is named after Tyre, the legendary birthplace of princess Europa. Originally called "Tyre [[Macula (planetary geology)|Macula]]", it is some 140 kilometers (90 miles) in [[diameter]] (about the size of the [[Hawaii (island)|island of Hawaii]]) and thought to be the site where an [[asteroid]] or [[comet]] impacted Europa's ice crust.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 January 2019 |title=Tyre Region of Europa |url=https://europa.nasa.gov/resources/100/tyre-region-of-europa/ |website=NASA EUROPA Clipper}}</ref>

The asteroid [[209 Dido]] is named after the legendary Tyrian-Carthaginian princess. It is a very large [[Asteroid belt|main-belt]] [[asteroid]], classified as a [[C-type asteroid]] which is probably composed of [[Carbonate|carbonaceous]] materials. 209 Dido was discovered in 1879 by [[Christian Heinrich Friedrich Peters|C. H. F. Peters]].