Editing Tutsi (section)

==History==
{{multiple image
| direction         = vertical
| width             = 
| footer            = 
| image1            = 
| caption1 we       = 
| image2            = King's palace in Nyanza.jpg
| caption2 we       = 
| image3            = Chifu Kaware safarini (Kandt 1904 II, 97).png
| caption3          = The traditional Tutsi king's palace in [[Nyanza, Rwanda|Nyanza]] (top) and Rwanda {{circa|1900}}, Tutsi Chief Kaware travelling (bottom)
}}
Prior to the arrival of colonists, Rwanda had been ruled by a Tutsi-dominated monarchy since the 15th century.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History |url=https://www.rlp-ruanda.de/en/the-two-countries/rwanda/history/ |access-date=2025-05-14 |website=www.rlp-ruanda.de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Rise of Rwanda {{!}} EBSCO Research Starters |url=https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/rise-rwanda |access-date=2025-05-14 |website=www.ebsco.com |language=en}}</ref> In 1897, Germany established a presence in Rwanda with the formation of an alliance with the king, beginning the colonial era.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lKFpAgAAQBAJ |last=Carney |first=J.J. |title=Rwanda Before the Genocide: Catholic Politics and Ethnic Discourse in the Late Colonial Era |page=24 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=9780199982288}}</ref> Later, Belgium took control in 1916 during World War I. Both European nations ruled through the Rwandan king and perpetuated a pro-Tutsi policy.

In Burundi, meanwhile, a ruling faction known as the ''[[ganwa]]'' emerged and quickly assumed effective control of the country's administration. The ''ganwa'' who relied on support from both Hutu and Tutsi populations to rule, were perceived within Burundi as neither Hutu nor Tutsi.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=DeRouen |first1=Karl R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nrN077AEgzMC&dq=Ganwa+ethnic&pg=PA205 |title=Civil Wars of the World: Major Conflicts Since World War II |last2=Heo |first2=Uk |date=2007 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-919-1 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mawer |first=Kit |date=2022-10-16 |title=Burundi Country Report |url=https://www.genocidewatch.com/single-post/country-report-burundi |access-date=2025-05-14 |website=genocidewatch |language=en}}</ref>

Rwanda was ruled as a colony by [[Germany]] (from 1897 to 1916) and by [[Belgium]] (from 1922 to 1961). Both the Tutsi and Hutu had been the traditional governing elite, but both colonial powers allowed only the Tutsi to be educated and to participate in the colonial government. Such discriminatory policies engendered resentment.{{cn|date=November 2021}}

When the Belgians took over, they believed the areas,which were formerly under German colonial control, could be better governed if they continued to identify the different populations as they had been previously identified. In the 1920s, the Belgian authorities required the population to identify with a particular ethnic group and the authorities classified them accordingly in censuses.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Divided by Ethnicity - United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |url=https://www.ushmm.org/genocide-prevention/countries/rwanda/divided-by-ethnicity |access-date=2025-05-14 |website=www.ushmm.org |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Rwanda Chronology {{!}} FRONTLINE {{!}} PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/rwanda/etc/cron.html |access-date=2025-05-14 |website=www.pbs.org}}</ref>

In 1959, Belgium reversed its stance and allowed the majority Hutu to assume control of the government through universal elections after independence. This partly reflected internal Belgian domestic politics, in which the discrimination against the Hutu majority came to be regarded as similar to oppression within Belgium stemming from the Flemish-Walloon conflict, and the democratization and empowerment of the Hutu was seen as a just response to the Tutsi domination. Belgian policies wavered and flip-flopped considerably during this period leading up to [[Burundi#Independence|independence of Burundi]] and [[History of Rwanda#Strife and lead up to independence|Rwanda]].{{cn|date=November 2021}}

===Independence of Rwanda and Burundi (1962)===
The Hutu majority in Rwanda had [[Rwanda Revolution|revolted against the Tutsi]] and was able to take power. Tutsi fled and created exile communities outside Rwanda in Uganda and Tanzania.<ref>Michael Bowen, ''Passing by;: The United States and genocide in Burundi'', 1972, (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1973), p. 49</ref><ref>René Lemarchand, ''Selective genocide in Burundi'' (Report – Minority Rights Group; no. 20, 1974)</ref><ref>Rene Lemarchand, ''Burundi: Ethnic Conflict and Genocide'' (New York: Woodrow Wilson Center and [[Cambridge University Press]], 1996)
*Edward L. Nyankanzi, ''Genocide: Rwanda and Burundi'' (Schenkman Books, 1998)</ref><ref>Christian P. Scherrer, ''Genocide and crisis in Central Africa: conflict roots, mass violence, and regional war''; foreword by [[Robert Melson (political scientist)|Robert Melson]]. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2002</ref><ref>Weissman, Stephen R."[http://www.usip.org/pubs/peaceworks/pwks22.html Preventing Genocide in Burundi Lessons from International Diplomacy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090311024548/http://www.usip.org/pubs/peaceworks/pwks22.html |date=11 March 2009 }}", [[United States Institute of Peace]]</ref> Overt discrimination from the colonial period was continued by different Rwandan and Burundian governments, including identity cards that distinguished Tutsi and Hutu.

===Burundian genocide (1993)===
{{Main|1993 ethnic violence in Burundi}}
In 1993, Burundi's first democratically elected president, [[Melchior Ndadaye]], a Hutu, was assassinated by Tutsi officers, as was the person entitled to succeed him under the constitution.<ref>''International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi: Final Report'', Part III: Investigation of the Assassination. Conclusions at [http://www.usip.org/library/tc/doc/reports/burundi_coi/burundi_coi1996pt3.html#VII USIP.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201132151/http://www.usip.org/library/tc/doc/reports/burundi_coi/burundi_coi1996pt3.html#VII |date=1 December 2008 }}</ref> This sparked [[1993 ethnic violence in Burundi|a genocide in Burundi]] between Hutu political structures and the Tutsi, in which "possibly as many as 25,000 Tutsi" – including military, civil servants and civilians<ref>{{Cite web |last=Refugees |first=United Nations High Commissioner for |title=Refworld {{!}} Human Rights Watch World Report 1995 – Burundi |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/467fca9a8.html |access-date=2023-04-20 |website=Refworld |language=en}}</ref> – were murdered by the former and "at least as many" Hutu were killed by the latter.<ref name=totten2>{{Cite book
| author1= René Lemarchand 
| chapter= The Burundian Genocide 
| page = 331
|editor1-last=Totten|editor1-first=Samuel|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Ef8Hrx8Cd0C&pg=PA331|title=Century of Genocide: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts|editor2-last=Parsons|editor2-first=William S.|editor3-last=Charny|editor3-first=Israel W.|date=2004
| edition= Second 
|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-94430-4|language=en}}</ref><ref>Lemarchand, René, Eggers, Ellen Kahan. "Burundi". Encyclopedia Britannica, 13 May. 2025, https://www.britannica.com/place/Burundi. Accessed 14 May 2025</ref> Since the 2000 [[Arusha Accords (Burundi)|Arusha Peace Process]], today in Burundi the Tutsi minority shares power in a more or less equitable manner with the Hutu majority. Traditionally, the Tutsi had held more economic power and controlled the military.<ref name=ICIBFR-496>International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi (2002)</ref>

===1994 genocide against the Tutsi===
{{Main|Rwandan genocide}}
[[File:Rwandan Patriotic Front Flag.svg|thumb|right|Flag of the Tutsi-led [[Rwandan Patriotic Front]]]]
A similar pattern of events took place in Rwanda, but there the Hutu came to power in 1962. They in turn often oppressed the Tutsi, who fled the country. After the [[Rwandan Revolution|anti-Tutsi violence]] around 1959–1961, Tutsi fled in large numbers.

These exile Tutsi communities gave rise to Tutsi rebel movements. The [[Rwandan Patriotic Front]], mostly made up of exiled Tutsi living primarily in Uganda, attacked Rwanda in 1990 with the intention of taking back the power. The RPF had experience in organized irregular warfare from the [[Ugandan Bush War]], and got much support from the government of Uganda. The initial RPF advance was halted by the lift of French arms to the Rwandan government. Attempts at peace culminated in the [[Arusha Accords (Rwanda)|Arusha Accords]].

The agreement broke down after the [[Assassination of Juvénal Habyarimana and Cyprien Ntaryamira|assassination of the Rwandan and Burundian presidents]], triggering a resumption of hostilities and the start of the [[Rwandan genocide|Rwandan Genocide]] of 1994, in which the Hutu then in power killed an estimated 500,000–600,000 people, largely of Tutsi origin.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Guichaoua |first1=André |title=Counting the Rwandan Victims of War and Genocide: Concluding Reflections |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |date=2020 |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=125–141 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2019.1703329|s2cid=213471539 }} 500,000–800,000 is the range of scholarly estimates listed on the third page of the paper.</ref><ref name=Meierhenrich>{{cite journal |last1=Meierhenrich |first1=Jens |author-link=Jens Meierhenrich |title=How Many Victims Were There in the Rwandan Genocide? A Statistical Debate |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |date=2020 |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=72–82 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2019.1709611|s2cid=213046710 |quote=Despite the various methodological disagreements among them, none of the scholars who participated in this forum gives credence to the official figure of 1,074,107 victims... Given the rigour of the various quantitative methodologies involved, this forum's overarching finding that the death toll of 1994 is nowhere near the one-million-mark is – scientifically speaking – incontrovertible.}}</ref><ref name=Reydams>{{cite journal |last1=Reydams |first1=Luc|author-link=Luc Reydams |title='More than a million': the politics of accounting for the dead of the Rwandan genocide |journal=Review of African Political Economy |date=2020 |volume=48|issue=168|pages=235–256 |doi=10.1080/03056244.2020.1796320|s2cid=225356374|quote=The government eventually settled on 'more than a million', a claim which few outside Rwanda have taken seriously.<p>The death of 'more than a million' Tutsi became the foundation of the new Rwanda, where former exiles hold a monopoly on power. It also created the socio-political environment for the mass criminalisation of Hutu. Gacaca courts eventually tried more than a million (Nyseth Brehm, Uggen, and Gasanabo 2016), which led President Kagame to suggest that all Hutu bear responsibility and should apologise (Benda 2017, 13). Thus the new Rwanda is built not only on the death of 'more than a million" Tutsi but also on the collective guilt of Hutu. This state of affairs is in no one's interests except the regime's.</p>|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Doherty |first=Ben |date=2024-02-25 |title=More than half a million people killed in 100 days: how the 1994 Rwanda genocide unfolded |url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2024/feb/26/more-than-half-a-million-people-killed-in-100-days-how-the-1994-rwanda-genocide-unfolded-ntwnfb |access-date=2025-05-14 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Rwanda |url=https://cla.umn.edu/chgs/holocaust-genocide-education/resource-guides/rwanda |access-date=2025-05-14 |website=College of Liberal Arts |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Rieff |first=David |date=2007-06-04 |title=God and Man in Rwanda |url=https://www.vanityfair.com/magazine/1994/12/rwanda199412 |access-date=2025-05-14 |website=Vanity Fair |language=en-US}}</ref> Victorious in the aftermath of the genocide, the Tutsi-ruled [[Rwandan Patriotic Front|RPF]] came to power in July 1994.{{Citation needed|date=May 2025}}