Editing Theodore I Laskaris (section)

== Reign ==

=== Coronation ===

[[File:Iznik Wall at Istanbul Gate 8288.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Ruins of stone walls.|Ruins of the walls of Nicaea.]]

David Komnenos dispatched an army to Bithynia, but Theodore defeated the invaders and their Latin allies at [[Nicomedia]].{{sfn|Angelov|2019|p=26}}{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=714}} Sultan Kaykhusraw{{nbsp}}I sent Seljuq troops to his father-in-law, Maurozomes, to invade the valley of the Maeander River in the spring of 1205, but they were soon defeated.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=714}}{{sfn|Angelov|2019|pp=26–27}} Theodore made a peace with Maurozomes, allowing him to rule two fortresses, [[Chonae]] and [[Laodicea on the Lycus]], as the Sultan's lieutenant.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=714}}{{sfn|Angelov|2019|pp=26–27}} Theodore assumed the title of [[basileus|emperor]] early in 1205—either after his victory at Nicomedia or after his peace treaty with Maurozomes.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=90}}{{sfn|Angelov|2019|p=27}}{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=714}} His new title was an open challenge to the legitimacy of the Latin emperor in Constantinople; therefore, the Latins regarded him as an usurper, unlawfully ruling territories of their empire.{{sfn|Van Tricht|2011|p=352}} Many Greeks also refused to recognize Theodore's claim to the emperorship because only coronation by the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople]] could legalize an emperor.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=90}} Theodore approached Patriarch [[John X of Constantinople|John Kamateros]], who lived in exile in Thrace, offering to move him to Nicaea, but the elderly prelate refused.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=90}}

Byzantine aristocrats, who had lost their Thracian, Thessalian or [[Peloponnese|Peloponnesian]] estates, came to Nicaea and Theodore gave asylum to them.<ref group="note">Members of the [[Raoul (Byzantine family)|Raoul]], [[Vranas]], [[Kantakouzenos]] and [[Palaiologos]] families settled in Nicaea during Theodore's rule.</ref>{{sfn|Angelov|2019|p=27}} He could only finance a simplified state administration, but he invited former high-ranking Byzantine officials to Nicaea.{{sfn|Angelov|2019|pp=27, 30}} His wife's uncle, the blind [[Basil Doukas Kamateros]]{{mdash}}a former ''[[logothetes tou dromou]]'' (minister of foreign affairs){{mdash}}assisted him in setting up the new administrative system.{{sfn|Angold|2011|p=70}}{{sfn|Angelov|2019|p=28}} He hired a Calabrian pirate, [[John Steiriones]], to command his fleet in the Sea of Marmara.{{sfn|Angelov|2019|pp=27–28}} Theodore had great confidence in his brothers. He made them military commanders and rewarded them with court titles.<ref group="note">Theodore rewarded Constantine with the title of despot; George, Alexios and Isaac received the rank of ''[[sebastokrator]]''. George was also made the ''[[dux|doux]]'' (governor) of the [[Thracesian Theme]].</ref>{{sfn|Angelov|2019|p=29}}

Patriarch John Kamateros died in June 1206. The Orthodox clergy of Constantinople asked Pope Innocent{{nbsp}}III to authorize them to elect a new patriarch, but the Latin authorities opposed their plan.{{sfn|Angold|2017|p=734}} The new Latin Emperor of Constantinople, Henry of Flanders, made an alliance with David Komnenos against Theodore. Theodore decided to capture [[Heraclea Pontica]] from David, but the Latins attacked his army from the rear when he was marching towards the town, and he had to abandon the campaign to chase the Latin troops off. The Latins invaded Asia Minor and captured Nicomedia and [[Cyzicus]] during the winter of 1206–1207. Theodore in turn allied himself with Kaloyan, who launched an incursion into Thrace, forcing Emperor Henry to recall his troops from Asia Minor.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=715}} After Theodore and his brothers had laid siege to Nicomedia, Henry agreed to sign a two-year truce, authorizing Theodore to destroy two fortifications at Nicomedia and Cyzicus.{{sfn|Angelov|2019|p=30}}{{sfn|Van Tricht|2011|p=110}}

The Orthodox clerics' negotiations with the Holy See about the appointment of an Orthodox patriarch proved unsuccessful.{{sfn|Angold|2017|p=734}}{{sfn|Van Tricht|2011|p=352}} Theodore addressed a letter to Pope Innocent{{nbsp}}III, requesting that he authorize the Orthodox clerics to elect the new patriarch.{{sfn|Angold|2017|pp=742–743}} He also tried to persuade the Pope to acknowledge him as the supreme head of the Orthodox community, but the Pope ignored both requests.{{sfn|Angold|2017|p=742}} When the Latins broke the truce early in 1208, Theodore again approached the Pope and asked him to mediate a peace, proposing the Sea of Marmara as the permanent frontier between the Latin Empire and his realm.{{sfn|Angelov|2019|p=30}}

Orthodox clerics urged Theodore to hold an election to decide a new Ecumenical Patriarch.{{sfn|Van Tricht|2011|p=352}} Theodore convoked a Church council in Nicaea in [[Holy Week]] 1208.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=90}} The assembled prelates elected a high-ranking cleric, [[Michael IV of Constantinople|Michael Autoreianos]], patriarch on 20&nbsp;March 1208.{{sfn|Angold|2017|p=734}}{{sfn|Angelov|2019|p=28}} Autoreianos was related to Theodore's chief advisor, Kamateros.{{sfn|Angold|2011|p=70}} As his first act, the new patriarch crowned and anointed Theodore "emperor and [[Autokrator|autocrat]] of the [[Rhomaioi|Romans]]".{{sfn|Van Tricht|2011|p=352}}{{sfn|Angelov|2019|p=28}} The ceremony took place on [[Easter Sunday]] (6 April).{{sfn|Dagron|2003|p=275}}{{sfn|Angold|2017|p=734}} Theodore's coronation by the new Ecumenical Patriarch sanctioned his claim to be the legitimate successor of the Byzantine monarchs.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=90}} His legitimacy, however, could be challenged, because only a lawful emperor could appoint a legitimate patriarch and only a legitimate patriarch could crown a lawful emperor. Theodore's opponents argued that the council electing Michael Autoreianos was just an assembly of randomly chosen bishops, not a properly convoked synod. In response, his supporters emphasized that the exceptional situation after the fall of Constantinople required a flexible interpretation of laws.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=91}}

=== Wars ===

[[File:Byzantium1204.png|thumb|right|upright=1.5|alt=Map showing the Latin Empire and the Byzantine successor states| The Latin Empire and the Byzantine successor states{{mdash}}Nicaea, Trebizond and Epirus (the borders are uncertain).]]

Four realms developed from the ruins of the Byzantine Empire by 1209.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=715}} Alexios{{nbsp}}I and David Komnenos consolidated their Empire of Trebizond in northern Asia Minor; Henry of Flanders integrated Thrace and almost all of Greece into the Latin Empire; Michael{{nbsp}}I Doukas secured his rule in Epirus; and Theodore{{nbsp}}I Laskaris emerged as the unrivaled ruler of western Asia Minor.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|pp=715–716}} The balance of power, however, remained unstable, because the four monarchs were rivals, always ready to form alliances against their neighbors.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|pp=716–717}} Emperor Henry concluded an alliance with Sultan Kaykhusraw{{nbsp}}I against Theodore, while Theodore allied himself with Kaloyan of Bulgaria's successor, [[Boril of Bulgaria|Boril]].{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=717}} Henry's vassal, Michael{{nbsp}}I Doukas, paid off the ransom of Theodore's father-in-law, Alexios{{nbsp}}III in 1209 or 1210.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=717}}{{sfn|Korobeinikov|2017|p=719}} Alexios{{nbsp}}III avoided Nicaea and went to Konya, seeking asylum at the court of Kaykhusraw{{nbsp}}I, his adopted son.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=717}}

Both Boril of Bulgaria and Michael{{nbsp}}I Doukas wanted to expel the Latins from [[Thessalonica]], prompting Emperor Henry to visit the town regularly.{{sfn|Fine|1994|pp=97–98}} Taking advantage of Henry's absence, Theodore sent his fleet to attack Constantinople in the spring of 1211.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=717}}{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=99}} Boril invaded Thrace, but he could not prevent Henry from returning to his capital.{{sfn|Fine|1994|pp=99–100}} Kaykhusraw{{nbsp}}I and Alexios{{nbsp}}III invaded Nicaea, forcing Theodore's troops to abandon the siege and hurry back to Asia Minor.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=717}}{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=99}} The two armies met at [[Antioch on the Maeander]] in late spring or around 17&nbsp;June.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=717}}{{sfn|Korobeinikov|2017|p=719}} The Seljuq troops were close to winning the [[Battle of Antioch on the Meander|battle]], but Theodore sought out Kaykhusraw and killed him in single combat.{{sfn|Korobeinikov|2017|p=719}}{{sfn|Angold|2017|p=737}} Alexios{{nbsp}}III was captured during the battle, and Theodore had his father-in-law imprisoned.{{sfn|Angold|2017|p=737}} He concluded a peace treaty with Kaykhushraw's son and successor, [[Kaykaus&nbsp;I]].{{sfn|Korobeinikov|2017|p=719}}

Theodore sent letters to the Greeks under the Latins' rule to inform them of his triumph and to urge them to rise up against the "Latin dogs".{{sfn|Angelov|2019|p=31}} However, he had only won a [[Pyrrhic victory]], because his best troops{{mdash}}his Latin mercenaries{{mdash}}perished in the battlefield.{{sfn|Angold|2017|p=737}} Emperor Henry led his army across the Bosporus and [[Battle of the Rhyndacus (1211)|routed Theodore's troops]] on the [[Mustafakemalpaşa River|Rhyndakos River]] on 15{{nbsp}}October 1211. Henry captured [[Nymphaeum (Bithynia)|Nymphaion]] and [[Pergamon]]. In a circular letter sent to the European monarchs early in 1212, he boasted of having subjugated the Greeks as far as the Seljuq frontier, save the garrisons of some fortresses.{{sfn|Angelov|2019|p=31}} Henry had to end his military campaign because he did not have enough troops to garrison the captured fortresses.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=717}} The two emperors made [[Treaty of Nymphaeum (1214)|peace]] between 1212 and 1214<ref group="note">Treadgold proposes the treaty was most probably concluded in 1212.</ref>{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=717}}{{sfn|Angelov|2019|p=31}} The peace confirmed the Latins' possession of the [[Troad]] region.{{sfn|Angelov|2019|p=31}} The Latins also seized some strategically important Bithynian fortresses,<ref group="note">[[Adramyttium]], [[Achyraous]], [[Lentiana]] and [[Poimanenon]] were among the fortresses seized by the Latins.</ref> taking control of the roads between the northern and southern territories of Theodore's realm.{{sfn|Angold|2017|p=737}}{{sfn|Angelov|2019|p=31}} Theodore adopted an intensive fortification program. New fortresses were built, and the old fortresses' walls were restored.{{sfn|Angelov|2019|p=31}} He also urged local officials to settle colonists around the new forts, granting arable lands to them.{{sfn|Angelov|2019|p=32}}

Theodore quickly recovered from his defeat.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=718}} Taking advantage of a conflict between the Latin Empire and Serbia,{{sfn|Van Tricht|2011|p=354}} Theodore and Sultan Kaykaus{{nbsp}}I invaded the Empire of Trebizond simultaneously in 1214.{{sfn|Korobeinikov|2017|p=719}} Theodore forced David Komnenos to abandon Heraclea Pontica on the Black Sea.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=718}} Whether he conquered eastern Paphlagonia during this campaign, or only years later, is unclear.{{sfn|Van Tricht|2011|p=352}} His conquest of the region put a narrow strip of land along the Black Sea coast under Nicaean control,{{sfn|Angelov|2019|p=49}} and thus removed the emperors of Trebizond from the competition for Constantinople.{{sfn|Angold|2017|p=737}}

=== Consolidation ===

The Latin clerics wanted to compel the Orthodox population of Constantinople to adopt the [[Catholic liturgy]] and to pay the [[tithe]], but they resisted. Pope Innocent{{nbsp}}III sent [[Pelagio Galvani|Cardinal Pelagius]] as his legate to Constantinople in 1213 to discipline the Orthodox population for their resistance.{{sfn|Angold|2017|p=743}}{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=78}} Pelagius closed Orthodox churches and ordered the imprisonment of the resistant monks, but the Greeks did not give in and many of them fled to Nicaea. The Greek aristocrats approached Emperor Henry, asking him either to stop the persecution of Orthodoxy or to allow them to move to Nicaea. Henry capitulated and ordered the re-opening of Orthodox churches in Constantinople.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=78}} Pelagius entered into negotiations with Theodore about a possible [[Church union]] at Heraclea Pontica, but their discussions proved inconclusive.{{sfn|Angold|2017|p=743}}

Michael&nbsp;I Komnenos Doukas was assassinated in late 1214 or in 1215.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=68}} Theodore Komnenos Doukas, who succeeded him, questioned Theodore Laskaris's claim to supremacy, ignoring his previous oath of fealty.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=68}} In concert with [[Demetrios Chomatenos]], the ambitious [[Archbishop of Ochrid]], Doukas denied the right of the patriarch residing in Nicaea to appoint bishops to the Balkan episcopal sees under Epirote control.{{sfn|Fine|1994|pp=68, 116}} Doukas's expansionist policy forced Emperor Henry to launch a military campaign against him, but Henry died unexpectedly before reaching Epirus.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=718}} The Latin barons elected his brother-in-law, [[Peter II of Courtenay|Peter of Courtenay]], as his successor, but he was captured and killed in Epirus during his journey towards Constantinople in 1217.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|pp=718–719}} A lasting vacancy followed his death, with his widow, [[Yolanda of Flanders]], ruling the Latin Empire as [[regent]].{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=719}} She gave her daughter, [[Maria of Courtenay]], in marriage to Theodore who agreed to prolong his peace treaty with the Latin Empire.{{sfn|Van Tricht|2011|pp=364–365}}

Yolande of Flanders died before October 1219.{{sfn|Van Tricht|2011|p=365}} Theodore sent envoys to Constantinople to announce his claim to succeed her, but the Latin barons ignored it.{{sfn|Van Tricht|2011|p=352}} Theodore proposed new negotiations about the Church union in 1219, taking advantage of the vacancy of the [[Latin patriarchate of Constantinople]].{{sfn|Angold|2017|p=743}} He planned to convoke the Orthodox patriarchs of Constantinople, [[Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch|Antioch]], [[Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]] and [[Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria|Alexandria]] to a synod in Nicaea, but the Orthodox clergy thwarted the idea.{{sfn|Angold|2017|p=743}}{{sfn|Van Tricht|2011|pp=365–366}} [[Jacopo Tiepolo]], the ''[[Podestà of Constantinople|Podestà]]'' (or head) of the Venetian community in Constantinople, convinced Theodore to spell out the Venetian merchants' privileges in a [[chrysobull]] in August 1219.{{sfn|Nicol|1988|p=163}} The decree granted the Venetians the right to trade freely in the Empire of Nicaea and exempted them from taxation.{{sfn|Nicol|1988|p=163}} The diploma also prohibited each party from copying or counterfeiting coins issued by the other.{{sfn|Nicol|1988|pp=163–164}} Theodore attempted to enforce his claim to Constantinople by force in 1220, but the Latins repelled his attack.{{sfn|Van Tricht|2011|p=365}} The new Latin Emperor, [[Robert I, Latin Emperor|Robert of Courtenay]], came to Constantinople in March 1221.{{sfn|Van Tricht|2011|p=365}} Peace between the two empires was soon restored.{{sfn|Van Tricht|2011|p=365}}

Theodore died in November 1221.{{sfn|Angelov|2019|p=57}}{{sfn|Angold|2011|p=52}}{{sfn|Van Tricht|2011|p=366}} A dynastic conflict followed because his two brothers, Alexios and Isaac, and his son-in-law, [[John III Doukas Vatatzes|John Doukas Vatatzes]], claimed the throne.{{sfn|Van Tricht|2011|p=367}} The conflict ended with Vatatzes's victory; Theodore's brothers were forced into exile.{{sfn|Angold|2017|p=737}}{{sfn|Angelov|2019|p=57}}{{sfn|Van Tricht|2011|p=367}} Theodore was buried next to his father-in-law and his first wife in the monastery of Saint Hyakinthos in Nicaea.{{sfn|Angelov|2019|p=44}}