Editing Sugar (section)

=== Modern history ===

{{see also|Triangular trade}}

{{multiple image
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 | image1 = Sugar Cane closeup.jpg
 | caption1 = Sugar cane; demand for sugar contributed to creating [[Colonialism|colonial systems]] in areas where cultivation of sugar cane was profitable.
 | image2 = Hacienda La Fortuna Francisco Oller 1885 Brooklyn Museum.jpg
 | caption2 = ''Hacienda La Fortuna.'' A sugar mill complex in Puerto Rico, painted by [[Francisco Oller]] in 1885, [[Brooklyn Museum]]
}}In August 1492, [[Christopher Columbus]] collected sugar cane samples in [[La Gomera]] in the [[Canary Islands]], and introduced it to the [[New World]].<ref>{{cite book |title= Historia de la conquista de las siete islas de Canarias |last= Abreu y Galindo |first= J. de |editor= A. Cioranescu  |year= 1977 |publisher= Goya ediciones |location= Tenerife }}</ref> The cuttings were planted and the first sugar-cane harvest in [[Hispaniola]] took place in 1501. Many sugar mills had been constructed in [[Captaincy General of Cuba|Cuba]] and [[Spanish Jamaica|Jamaica]] by the 1520s.<ref name="duke">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yTYWZnlz0akC&q=Mofongo+origin&pg=PA97| title=The Repeating: The Caribbean and the Postmodern Perspective | publisher=Duke University Press |author=Antonio Benítez Rojo |others=James E. Maraniss (translation) |year=1996|isbn=0-8223-1865-2 |page=93}}</ref> The Portuguese took sugar cane to Brazil. By 1540, there were 800 cane-sugar mills in [[Santa Catarina Island]] and another 2,000 on the north coast of Brazil, [[Demarara]], and [[Surinam (Dutch colony)|Surinam]]. It took until 1600 for Brazilian sugar production to exceed that of [[São Tomé]], which was the main center of sugar production in sixteenth century.<ref name="Manning-2006"/>
{{multiple image
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| image1            = Andreas Sigismund Marggaf.jpg
| image2            = Achard Franz Karl.jpg
| footer            = German chemists [[Andreas Sigismund Marggraf]] (left) and [[Franz Karl Achard]] (right) both laid the foundation of the modern sugar industry.
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Sugar was a luxury in Europe until the early 19th century, when it became more widely available, due to the rise of [[Sugar beet|beet sugar]] in [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]], and later in [[First French Empire|France]] under [[Napoleon]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eufic.org/de/food-today/article/the-origins-of-sugar-from-beet|title=The Origins of Sugar from Beet|date=3 July 2001|website=EUFIC|access-date=29 March 2020|archive-date=1 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801195414/https://www.eufic.org/de/food-today/article/the-origins-of-sugar-from-beet|url-status=dead}}</ref> Beet sugar was a German invention, since, in 1747, [[Andreas Sigismund Marggraf]] announced the discovery of sugar in beets and devised a method using alcohol to extract it.<ref>{{cite book |author=Marggraf |year=1747 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lJQDAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA79 |chapter=Experiences chimiques faites dans le dessein de tirer un veritable sucre de diverses plantes, qui croissent dans nos contrées |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221231160304/https://books.google.com/books?id=lJQDAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA79 |archive-date=31 December 2022 |trans-chapter=Chemical experiments made with the intention of extracting real sugar from diverse plants that grow in our lands |title=Histoire de l'académie royale des sciences et belles-lettres de Berlin |pages= 79–90 |language=fr}}</ref> Marggraf's student, [[Franz Karl Achard]], devised an economical industrial method to extract the sugar in its pure form in the late 18th century.<ref>{{cite book |author=Achard |year=1799 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0zhOAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA163 |chapter=Procédé d'extraction du sucre de bette |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221022133746/https://books.google.com/books?id=0zhOAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA163 |archive-date=22 October 2022 |trans-chapter=Process for extracting sugar from beets |title=Annales de Chimie |volume=32 |pages=163–168}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid = 13086516 | last = Wolff | first = G. | year = 1953 |title = Franz Karl Achard, 1753–1821; a contribution of the cultural history of sugar |volume=7 |issue=4 |periodical=[[Medizinische Monatsschrift für Pharmazeuten|Medizinische Monatsschrift]] |pages=253–4 }}</ref> Achard first produced beet sugar in 1783 in [[Kaulsdorf (Berlin)|Kaulsdorf]], and in 1801, the world's first beet sugar production facility was established in [[Konary, Wołów County|Cunern]], [[Silesia]] (then part of Prussia, now [[Poland]]).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www2.tu-berlin.de/~zuckerinstitut/museum.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070824035034/http://www2.tu-berlin.de/~zuckerinstitut/museum.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=24 August 2007|title=Festveranstaltung zum 100jährigen Bestehen des Berliner Institut für Zuckerindustrie|date=23 November 2004|website=Technische Universität Berlin|access-date=29 March 2020}}</ref> The works of Marggraf and Achard were the starting point for the sugar industry in Europe,<ref>{{cite book|title=[[Larousse Gastronomique]]|date=13 October 2009|publisher=[[Éditions Larousse]]|isbn=9780600620426|pages=1152}}</ref> and for the modern sugar industry in general, since sugar was no longer a luxury product and a product almost only produced in warmer climates.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andreas-Sigismund-Marggraf|title=Andreas Sigismund Marggraf {{!}} German chemist|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=29 March 2020|archive-date=29 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329175917/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andreas-Sigismund-Marggraf|url-status=live}}</ref>

Sugar became highly popular and by the 19th century, was found in every household. This evolution of taste and demand for sugar as an essential food ingredient resulted in major economic and social changes.<ref name="mintz">{{cite book |title= Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History |first= Sidney |last= Mintz |isbn= 978-0-14-009233-2 |year= 1986 |publisher= Penguin |url= https://archive.org/details/sweetnesspowerpl00mint }}</ref> Demand drove, in part, the colonization of tropical islands and areas where labor-intensive sugarcane plantations and sugar manufacturing facilities could be successful.<ref name="mintz"/> World consumption increased more than 100 times from 1850 to 2000, led by Britain, where it increased from about 2 pounds per head per year in 1650 to 90 pounds by the early 20th century. In the late 18th century Britain consumed about half the sugar which reached Europe.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Otter |first1=Chris |title=Diet for a large planet |date=2020 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=USA |isbn=978-0-226-69710-9 |page=73 }}</ref>

After slavery was [[Abolitionism|abolished]], the demand for workers in European colonies in the Caribbean was filled by [[Indentured servitude|indentured laborers]] from the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref name=britain1>{{cite web |title= Forced Labour |year= 2010 |publisher= The National Archives, Government of the United Kingdom |url= http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/blackhistory/india/forced.htm |access-date= 1 February 2012 |archive-date= 4 December 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161204015712/http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/blackhistory/india/forced.htm |url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first= Walton |last= Lai |title= Indentured labor, Caribbean sugar: Chinese and Indian migrants to the British West Indies, 1838–1918 |year= 1993 |publisher= Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn= 978-0-8018-7746-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first= Steven |last= Vertovik |author2= (Robin Cohen, ed.) |title= The Cambridge survey of world migration |year= 1995 |pages= [https://archive.org/details/cambridgesurveyo00robi/page/57 57–68] |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn= 978-0-521-44405-7 |url= https://archive.org/details/cambridgesurveyo00robi/page/57 }}</ref> Millions of enslaved or indentured laborers were brought to various European colonies in the Americas, Africa and Asia (as a result of demand in Europe for among other commodities, sugar), influencing the ethnic mixture of numerous nations around the globe.<ref>{{cite book |title= A Question of Labour: Indentured Immigration Into Trinidad & British Guiana, 1875–1917 |first= K |last= Laurence |publisher= St Martin's Press |year= 1994 |isbn= 978-0-312-12172-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= St. Lucia's Indian Arrival Day |work= Repeating Islands |year= 2009 |publisher= Caribbean Repeating Islands |url= http://repeatingislands.com/2009/05/07/st-lucia%E2%80%99s-indian-arrival-day/ |access-date= 1 February 2012 |archive-date= 24 April 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170424085806/https://repeatingislands.com/2009/05/07/st-lucia%E2%80%99s-indian-arrival-day/ |url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= Indian indentured labourers |publisher= The National Archives, Government of the United Kingdom |year= 2010 |url= http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/records/research-guides/indian-indentured-labour.htm |access-date= 1 February 2012 |archive-date= 12 December 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111212175352/http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/records/research-guides/indian-indentured-labour.htm |url-status= live }}</ref>

Sugar also led to some industrialization of areas where sugar cane was grown. For example, in the 1790s Lieutenant J. Paterson, of the [[Bengal Presidency]] promoted to the [[Parliament of Great Britain|British parliament]] the idea that sugar cane could grow in [[Company rule in India|British India]], where it had started, with many advantages and at less expense than in the [[West Indies]]. As a result, sugar factories were established in [[Bihar]] in eastern India.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bihargatha.in/early-agriculture-based-enterprenureships/sugar-concerns |title=Early Sugar Industry of Bihar – Bihargatha |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110910142340/http://www.bihargatha.in/early-agriculture-based-enterprenureships/sugar-concerns |archive-date=10 September 2011 |website=Bihargatha.in |accessdate=7 January 2012}}</ref><ref>
Compare: {{cite book | last1 = Bosma | first1 = Ulbe | title = The Sugar Plantation in India and Indonesia: Industrial Production, 1770–2010 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=DZuyAAAAQBAJ | series = Studies in Comparative World History | publisher = Cambridge University Press | date = 2013 | isbn = 978-1-107-43530-8 | access-date = 3 September 2018}}</ref> During the [[Napoleonic Wars]], sugar-beet production increased in continental Europe because of the difficulty of importing sugar when shipping was subject to [[blockade]]. By 1880 the sugar beet was the main source of sugar in Europe. It was also cultivated in [[Lincolnshire]] and other parts of England, although the United Kingdom continued to import the main part of its sugar from its colonies.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.sucrose.com/lhist.html |title= How Sugar is Made – the History |work= SKIL: Sugar Knowledge International |access-date= 28 March 2012 |archive-date= 20 October 2002 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20021020062627/http://www.sucrose.com/lhist.html |url-status= live }}</ref>

Until the late nineteenth century, sugar was purchased in [[sugarloaf|loaves]], which had to be cut using implements called [[sugar nips]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.thesugargirls.com/a-visit-to-the-tate-lyle-archive// |title= A Visit to the Tate & Lyle Archive |publisher= The Sugar Girls blog |date= 10 March 2012 |access-date= 11 March 2012 |archive-date= 30 July 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120730135449/http://www.thesugargirls.com/a-visit-to-the-tate-lyle-archive/ |url-status= usurped }}</ref> In later years, granulated sugar was more usually sold in bags. [[Sugar cube]]s were produced in the nineteenth century. The first inventor of a process to produce sugar in cube form was [[Jakob Christof Rad]], director of a sugar refinery in [[Dačice]]. In 1841, he produced the first sugar cube in the world.<ref name=history>{{cite web|title=Dačice|url=https://www.dacice.cz/en/|publisher=Město Dačice|access-date=2021-09-02|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902101743/https://www.dacice.cz/en/|url-status=live}}</ref> He began sugar-cube production after being granted a five-year patent for the process on 23 January 1843. [[Henry Tate]] of [[Tate & Lyle]] was another early manufacturer of sugar cubes at his refineries in [[Liverpool]] and London. Tate purchased a patent for sugar-cube manufacture from German [[Eugen Langen]], who in 1872 had invented a different method of processing of sugar cubes.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Duncan |last1=Barrett |first2=Nuala |last2=Calvi |publisher= Collins |title= The Sugar Girls |isbn=978-0-00-744847-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/sugargirlstaleso0000barr/page/ ix] |year=2012 |url=https://archive.org/details/sugargirlstaleso0000barr/page/}}</ref>

Sugar was rationed during [[World War I]], though it was said that "No previous war in history has been fought so largely on sugar and so little on alcohol",<ref>{{cite book |last1=Otter |first1=Chris |title=Diet for a large planet |date=2020 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=USA |isbn=978-0-226-69710-9 |page=96 }}</ref> and more sharply during [[World War II]].<ref name=Hicks>{{cite web |last1=Hicks |first1=Jesse |title=The Pursuit of Sweet |url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/the-pursuit-of-sweet |publisher=Science History Institute |date=Spring 2010 |access-date=28 October 2018 |archive-date=5 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105224816/https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/the-pursuit-of-sweet |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=1953: Sweet rationing ends in Britain |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/5/newsid_2737000/2737731.stm |work=BBC |date=5 February 1953 |access-date=28 October 2018 |archive-date=25 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225083426/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/5/newsid_2737000/2737731.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Nilsson |first1=Jeff |title=Could You Stomach America's Wartime Sugar Ration? 75 Years Ago |url=https://www.saturdayeveningpost.com/2017/05/stomach-americas-wartime-sugar-ration-75-years-ago/ |work=Saturday Evening Post |date=5 May 2017 |access-date=28 October 2018 |archive-date=29 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181029031055/https://www.saturdayeveningpost.com/2017/05/stomach-americas-wartime-sugar-ration-75-years-ago/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Lee |first1=K. |title=Sugar Supply |url=https://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre1946100200 |publisher=CQ Press. |access-date=28 October 2018 |date=1946 |archive-date=29 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181029030756/https://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre1946100200 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Rationing of food and clothing during the Second World War |url=https://www.awm.gov.au/articles/encyclopedia/homefront/rationing |publisher=The Australian War Memorial |date=25 October 2017 |access-date=28 October 2018 |archive-date=29 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181029031012/https://www.awm.gov.au/articles/encyclopedia/homefront/rationing |url-status=live }}</ref> Rationing led to the development and use of various [[artificial sweeteners]].<ref name=Hicks/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ur-Rehman |first1=S |last2=Mushtaq |first2=Z |last3=Zahoor |first3=T |last4=Jamil |first4=A |last5=Murtaza |first5=MA |title=Xylitol: a review on bioproduction, application, health benefits, and related safety issues. |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |date=2015 |volume=55 |issue=11 |pages=1514–28 |doi=10.1080/10408398.2012.702288 |pmid=24915309|s2cid=20359589}}</ref>