Editing Stingray (section)

==Behavior==
[[File:Dasyatis sabina - MC Gilbert 2019.jpg|thumb|{{center|Skeleton of an [[atlantic stingray]] (''Hypanus sabinus'')}}]]

===Reproduction===
[[File:Mobula breach 2.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mobula]] (devil rays) are thought to [[Cetacean surfacing behaviour|breach]] as a form of courtship.]]
During the [[breeding season]], males of various stingray species such as the [[round stingray]] (''Urobatis halleri''), may rely on their [[ampullae of Lorenzini]] to sense certain electrical signals given off by mature females before potential [[copulation (zoology)|copulation]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tricasa |first1=Timothy C. |last2=Michael |first2=Scott W. |last3=Sisneros |first3=Joseph A. |title=Electrosensory optimization to conspecific phasic signals for mating |journal=Neuroscience Letters |date=December 1995 |volume=202 |issue=1–2 |pages=129–132 |doi=10.1016/0304-3940(95)12230-3 |pmid=8787848 }}</ref> When a male is courting a female, he follows her closely, biting at her pectoral disc. He then places one of his two claspers into her valve.<ref>[http://www.wetwebmedia.com/fwsubwebindex/fwraybehfaq.htm FAQs on Freshwater Stingray Behavior] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171002070831/http://www.wetwebmedia.com/fwsubwebindex/fwraybehfaq.htm |date=2017-10-02 }}. Wetwebmedia.com. Retrieved on 2012-07-17.</ref>

Reproductive ray behaviors are associated with their [[behavioral endocrinology]], for example, in species such as the [[atlantic stingray]] (''Hypanus sabinus''), social groups are formed first, then the sexes display complex [[courtship display|courtship]] behaviors that end in pair [[copulation (zoology)|copulation]] which is similar to the species ''Urobatis halleri.''<ref name = hormone>{{cite journal |last1=Tricas |first1=Timothy C. |last2=Rasmussen |first2=L. E. L. |last3=Maruska |first3=Karen P. |title=Annual Cycles of Steroid Hormone Production, Gonad Development, and Reproductive Behavior in the Atlantic Stingray |journal=General and Comparative Endocrinology |date=2000 |volume=118 |issue=2 |pages=209–25 |doi=10.1006/gcen.2000.7466 |pmid=10890563 }}</ref> Furthermore, their mating period is one of the longest recorded in elasmobranch fish. Individuals are known to mate for seven months before the females ovulate in March. During this time, the male stingrays experience increased levels of androgen hormones which has been linked to its prolonged mating periods.<ref name = hormone/> The behavior expressed among males and females during specific parts of this period involves aggressive social interactions.<ref name = hormone/> Frequently, the males trail females with their snout near the female vent then proceed to bite the female on her fins and her body.<ref name = hormone/> Although this mating behavior is similar to the species ''Urobatis halleri'', differences can be seen in the particular actions of ''Hypanus sabinus''. Seasonal elevated levels of serum androgens coincide with the expressed aggressive behavior, which led to the proposal that androgen steroids start, indorse and maintain aggressive sexual behaviors in the male rays for this species which drives the prolonged mating season. Similarly, concise elevations of serum androgens in females has been connected to increased aggression and improvement in [[mate choice]]. When their androgen steroid levels are elevated, they are able to improve their mate choice by quickly fleeing from tenacious males when undergoing ovulation succeeding impregnation. This ability affects the paternity of their offspring by refusing less qualified mates.<ref name = hormone/>

Stingrays are [[ovoviviparous]], bearing live young in "litters" of five to thirteen. During this period, the female's behavior transitions to support of her future offspring. Females hold the embryos in the womb without a placenta. Instead, the embryos absorb nutrients from a [[yolk sac]] and after the sac is depleted, the mother provides uterine "milk".<ref>[http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/AtlanticStingray/AtlanticStingray.html Florida Museum of Natural History Ichthyology Department: Atlantic Stingray] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160104222940/https://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/AtlanticStingray/AtlanticStingray.html |date=2016-01-04 }}. Flmnh.ufl.edu. Retrieved on 2012-07-17.</ref> After birth, the offspring generally disassociate from the mother and swim away, having been born with the instinctual abilities to protect and feed themselves. In a very small number of species, like the [[giant freshwater stingray]] (''Urogymnus polylepis''), the mother "cares" for her young by having them swim with her until they are one-third of her size.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Seubert |first1=Curtis |title=How Do Stingrays Take Care of Their Young? |date=April 24, 2017 |url=https://sciencing.com/do-stingrays-care-young-8791629.html |access-date=December 14, 2018 |archive-date=December 16, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181216031207/https://sciencing.com/do-stingrays-care-young-8791629.html |work=Sciencing|url-status=live }}</ref>

At the [[Sea Life London Aquarium]], two female stingrays delivered seven baby stingrays, although the mothers have not been near a male for two years. This suggests some species of rays can store sperm then give birth when they deem conditions to be suitable.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.smh.com.au/environment/conservation/stingrays-born-in-female-only-tank-20110810-1imik.html |title=Stingrays born in female only tank |date=2011-08-10 |work=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |access-date=2020-07-25 |archive-date=2020-07-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725012114/https://www.smh.com.au/environment/conservation/stingrays-born-in-female-only-tank-20110810-1imik.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Locomotion ===
[[File:Stingray locomotion gif.gif|thumb|{{center|[[Atlantic stingray]] (''Hypanus sabinus'') undulation locomotion}}]]

The stingray uses its paired [[pectoral fin]]s for moving around. This is in contrast to sharks and most other fish, which get most of their swimming power from a single [[Caudal fin|caudal (tail) fin]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Yangwei |last2=Tan |first2=Jinbo |last3=Zhao |first3=Dongbiao |title=Design and Experiment on a Biomimetic Robotic Fish Inspired by Freshwater Stingray |journal=Journal of Bionic Engineering |date=June 2015 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=204–216 |doi=10.1016/S1672-6529(14)60113-X }}</ref> Stingray pectoral fin [[Animal locomotion|locomotion]] can be divided into two categories, undulatory and oscillatory.<ref name="Fontanella">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fontanella J | date = 2013 | title = Two- and three-dimensional geometries of batoids in relation to locomotor mode|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology and Ecology|volume=446|pages=273–281 | doi = 10.1016/j.jembe.2013.05.016 | bibcode = 2013JEMBE.446..273F }}</ref> Stingrays that use undulatory locomotion have shorter thicker fins for slower motile movements in [[Benthic zone|benthic]] areas.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bottom II |first1=R. G. |last2=Borazjani |first2=I. |last3=Blevins |first3=E. L. |last4=Lauder |first4=G. V. |title=Hydrodynamics of swimming in stingrays: numerical simulations and the role of the leading-edge vortex |journal=Journal of Fluid Mechanics |date=10 February 2016 |volume=788 |pages=407–443 |doi=10.1017/jfm.2015.702 |bibcode=2016JFM...788..407B }}</ref> Longer thinner pectoral fins make for faster speeds in oscillation mobility in pelagic zones.<ref name="Fontanella" /> Visually distinguishable oscillation has less than one wave going, opposed to undulation having more than one wave at all times.<ref name="Fontanella" />

=== Feeding behavior and diet ===
[[File:Bat-ray-NOAA-Tony-Chess.jpg|thumb|left|[[Bat ray]] (''Myliobatis californica'') in a feeding posture]]
Stingrays use a wide range of feeding strategies. Some have specialized jaws that allow them to crush hard mollusk shells,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kolmann MA, Huber DR, Motta PJ, Grubbs RD | title = Feeding biomechanics of the cownose ray, ''Rhinoptera bonasus'', over ontogeny | journal = Journal of Anatomy | volume = 227 | issue = 3 | pages = 341–51 | date = September 2015 | pmid = 26183820 | pmc = 4560568 | doi = 10.1111/joa.12342 }}</ref> whereas others use external mouth structures called cephalic lobes to guide plankton into their oral cavity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dean MN, Bizzarro JJ, Summers AP | title = The evolution of cranial design, diet, and feeding mechanisms in batoid fishes | journal = Integrative and Comparative Biology | volume = 47 | issue = 1 | pages = 70–81 | date = July 2007 | pmid = 21672821 | doi = 10.1093/icb/icm034 | doi-access = free }}</ref> [[Benthic zone|Benthic]] stingrays (those that reside on the sea floor) are ambush hunters.<ref name="Curio">{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-81028-2 |title=The Ethology of Predation |date=1976 |last1=Curio |first1=Eberhard |isbn=978-3-642-81030-5 }}{{pn|date=November 2024}}</ref> They wait until prey comes near, then use a strategy called "tenting".<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wilga CD, Maia A, Nauwelaerts S, Lauder GV | title = Prey handling using whole-body fluid dynamics in batoids | journal = Zoology | volume = 115 | issue = 1 | pages = 47–57 | date = February 2012 | pmid = 22244456 | doi = 10.1016/j.zool.2011.09.002 | bibcode = 2012Zool..115...47W }}</ref> With pectoral fins pressed against the substrate, the ray will raise its head, generating a suction force that pulls the prey underneath the body. This form of whole-body suction is analogous to the buccal [[suction feeding]] performed by ray-finned fish. Stingrays exhibit a wide range of colors and patterns on their dorsal surface to help them camouflage with the sandy bottom. Some stingrays can even change color over the course of several days to adjust to new habitats. Since their mouths are on the underside of their bodies, they catch their prey, then crush and eat with their powerful jaws. Like its shark relatives, the stingray is outfitted with electrical sensors called ampullae of Lorenzini. Located around the stingray's mouth, these organs sense the natural electrical charges of potential prey. Many rays have jaw teeth to enable them to crush mollusks such as clams, oysters and mussels.

Most stingrays feed primarily on [[mollusca|mollusk]]s, [[crustacean]]s and, occasionally, on small fish. [[Potamotrygonidae|Freshwater stingrays]] in the Amazon feed on insects and break down their tough exoskeletons with mammal-like chewing motions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kolmann MA, Welch KC, Summers AP, Lovejoy NR | title = Always chew your food: freshwater stingrays use mastication to process tough insect prey | journal = Proceedings. Biological Sciences | volume = 283 | issue = 1838 | pages = 20161392 | date = September 2016 | pmid = 27629029 | pmc = 5031661 | doi = 10.1098/rspb.2016.1392 }}</ref> Large [[Pelagic fish|pelagic]] rays like the [[Manta ray|manta]] use [[Aquatic feeding mechanisms|ram feeding]] to consume vast quantities of [[plankton]] and have been seen swimming in acrobatic patterns through plankton patches.<ref name="Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 607–614">{{Cite journal|last1=Notarbartolo-di-Sciara|first1=Giuseppe|last2=Hillyer|first2=Elizabeth V. | name-list-style = vanc |date=1989-01-01|title=Mobulid Rays off Eastern Venezuela (Chondrichthyes, Mobulidae)|journal=Copeia|volume=1989|issue=3|pages=607–614|doi=10.2307/1445487|jstor=1445487}}</ref>