Editing Spacecraft (section)

== Types of spacecraft ==

=== Communications satellite ===
{{Main|Communications satellite}}

A communications satellite is an [[artificial satellite]] that relays and amplifies [[radio]] telecommunication signals via a [[Transponder (satellite communications)|transponder]]; it creates a [[communication channel]] between a source [[transmitter]] and a [[Radio receiver|receiver]] at different locations on [[Earth]]. Communications satellites are used for [[television]], [[telephone]], [[radio]], [[internet]], and [[military]] applications.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=satellite communication |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/524891/satellite-communication |access-date=2016-02-10 |last=Labrador |first=Virgil |date=2015-02-19}}</ref>  Many communications satellites are in [[geostationary orbit]] {{convert|22,300|mi|km}} above the [[equator]], so that the satellite appears stationary at the same point in the sky; therefore the [[satellite dish]] antennas of ground stations can be aimed permanently at that spot and do not have to move to track the satellite. Others form [[satellite constellation]]s in [[low Earth orbit]], where antennas on the ground have to follow the position of the satellites and switch between satellites frequently.

The high frequency [[radio wave]]s used for telecommunications links travel by [[Line-of-sight propagation|line of sight]] and so are obstructed by the curve of the Earth.  The purpose of communications satellites is to relay the signal around the curve of the Earth allowing communication between widely separated geographical points.<ref>{{cite web |title=Satellites - Communication Satellites |url=http://satellites.spacesim.org/english/function/communic/index.html |access-date=2016-02-10 |publisher=Satellites.spacesim.org}}</ref>  Communications satellites use a wide range of radio and [[microwave]] [[frequencies]]. To avoid signal interference, international organizations have regulations for which frequency ranges or "bands" certain organizations are allowed to use. This allocation of bands minimizes the risk of signal interference.<ref name="aerospace.org">{{cite web |date=2010-04-01 |title=Military Satellite Communications Fundamentals &#124; The Aerospace Corporation |url=http://www.aerospace.org/2013/12/12/military-satellite-communications-fundamentals/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905170449/http://www.aerospace.org/2013/12/12/military-satellite-communications-fundamentals/ |archive-date=2015-09-05 |access-date=2016-02-10 |website=Aerospace}}</ref>

=== Cargo spacecraft ===
{{Further|Comparison of space station cargo vehicles}}
[[File:Progress-HTV-Dragon-ATV Cyngus Cygnus-extended Collage.jpg|thumb|A collage of automated cargo spacecraft used in the past or present to resupply the [[International Space Station]]]]
Cargo or resupply spacecraft are robotic spacecraft that are designed specifically to carry [[cargo]], possibly to support [[space station]]s' operation by transporting food, propellant and other supplies.

Automated cargo spacecraft have been used since 1978 and have serviced [[Salyut 6]], [[Salyut 7]], [[Mir]], the [[International Space Station]] and [[Tiangong program|Tiangong]] space station.

As of 2023, three different cargo spacecraft are used to supply the [[International Space Station]]: Russian ''[[Progress (spacecraft)|Progress]]'', American [[SpaceX Dragon 2]] and [[Cygnus (spacecraft)|Cygnus]]. Chinese ''[[Tianzhou (spacecraft)|Tianzhou]]'' is used to supply [[Tiangong space station]].

=== Space probes ===
{{Main|Space probe}}
Space probes are robotic spacecraft that are sent to explore deep space, or [[Astronomical object|astronomical bodies]] other than Earth. They are distinguished from [[Lander (spacecraft)|landers]] by the fact that they work in open space, not on planetary surfaces or in planetary atmospheres. Being robotic eliminates the need for expensive, heavy life support systems (the [[Apollo program|Apollo]] crewed Moon landings required the use of the [[Saturn V]] rocket that cost over a billion dollars per launch, adjusted for inflation) and so allows for lighter, less expensive rockets. Space probes have visited every planet in the Solar System and [[Pluto]], and the [[Parker Solar Probe]] has an orbit that, at its closest point, is in the [[Chromosphere|Sun's chromosphere]]. There are five space probes that are [[Parabolic trajectory|escaping the Solar System]], these are ''[[Voyager 1]]'', ''[[Voyager 2]]'', ''[[Pioneer 10]]'', ''[[Pioneer 11]]'', and ''[[New Horizons]]''.

==== Voyager program ====
{{Main|Voyager program}}
The identical [[Voyager program|Voyager probes]], weighing {{convert|721.9|kg|lb}},<ref>{{Cite web |title=Voyager 1 - NASA Science |url=https://science.nasa.gov/mission/voyager-1/ |access-date=2023-11-22 |website=science.nasa.gov |language=en}}</ref> were launched in 1977 to take advantage of a rare alignment of [[Jupiter]], [[Saturn]], [[Uranus]] and [[Neptune]] that would allow a spacecraft to visit all four planets in one mission, and get to each destination faster by using [[gravity assist]]. In fact, the rocket that launched the probes (the [[Titan IIIE]]) could not even send the probes to the orbit of [[Saturn]], yet ''[[Voyager 1]]'' is travelling at roughly {{convert|17|km/s|sp=us|mi/s|abbr=unit}} and ''[[Voyager 2]]'' moves at about {{convert|15|km/s|sp=us|mi/s|abbr=unit}} kilometres per second as of 2023. In 2012, ''Voyager 1'' exited the heliosphere, followed by ''Voyager 2'' in 2018. ''Voyager 1'' actually launched 16 days after ''Voyager 2'' but it reached Jupiter sooner because ''Voyager 2'' was taking a longer route that allowed it to visit Uranus and Neptune, whereas ''Voyager 1'' did not visit Uranus or Neptune, instead choosing to fly past Saturn’s satellite [[Titan (moon)|Titan]]. As of August 2023, ''Voyager 1'' has passed 160 [[astronomical unit]]s, which means it is over 160 times farther from the [[Sun]] than Earth is. This makes it the farthest spacecraft from the Sun. ''Voyager 2'' is 134 AU away from the Sun as of August 2023. NASA provides real time data of their distances and data from the probe’s cosmic ray detectors.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mission Status |url=https://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/status/}}</ref> Because of the probe’s declining power output and degradation of the [[Radioisotope thermoelectric generator|RTGs]] over time, [[NASA]] has had to shut down certain instruments to conserve power. The probes may still have some scientific instruments on until the mid-2020s or perhaps the 2030s. After 2036, they will both be out of range of the [[Deep Space Network]].

=== Space telescopes ===
{{Main|Space telescope}}
A space telescope or space observatory is a [[telescope]] in outer space used to observe astronomical objects. Space telescopes avoid the filtering and distortion of [[electromagnetic radiation]] which they observe, and avoid [[light pollution]] which [[Observatory#Ground-based observatories|ground-based observatories]] encounter. They are divided into two types: satellites which map the entire sky ([[astronomical survey]]), and satellites which focus on selected [[astronomical object]]s or parts of the sky and beyond. Space telescopes are distinct from [[Earth imaging satellite]]s, which point toward Earth for [[satellite imaging]], applied for [[Weather satellite|weather analysis]], [[Reconnaissance satellite|espionage]], and [[Remote sensing|other types of information gathering]].

=== Landers ===
{{Main|Lander (spacecraft)}}
[[File:Apollo 16 LM.jpg|thumb|The [[Apollo 16]] Extended [[Apollo Lunar Module]], a lunar lander]]
A lander is a type of spacecraft that makes a soft landing on the surface of an [[astronomical body]] other than [[Earth]]. Some landers, such as [[Philae]] and the [[Apollo Lunar Module]], land entirely by using their fuel supply, however many landers (and landings of spacecraft on [[Earth]]) use [[aerobraking]], especially for more distant destinations. This involves the spacecraft using a fuel burn to change its trajectory so it will pass through a planet (or a moon's) atmosphere. [[Drag (physics)|Drag]] caused by the spacecraft hitting the atmosphere enables it to slow down without using fuel, however this generates very high temperatures and so adds a requirement for a [[heat shield]] of some sort.

=== Space capsules ===
{{Main|Space capsule}}
Space capsules are a type of spacecraft that can return from space at least once. They have a blunt shape, do not usually contain much more fuel than needed, and they do not possess wings unlike [[spaceplanes]]. They are the simplest form of recoverable spacecraft, and so the most commonly used. The first such capsule was the [[Vostok (spacecraft)|Vostok]] capsule built by the Soviet Union, that carried the first person in space, [[Yuri Gagarin]]. Other examples include the [[Soyuz (spacecraft)|Soyuz]] and [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]] capsules, built by the Soviet Union and [[NASA]], respectively.

=== Spaceplanes ===
{{Main|Spaceplane}}
[[File:STS-73 landing.jpg|thumb|''Columbia'' orbiter landing]]
Spaceplanes are spacecraft that are built in the shape of, and function as, [[airplane]]s. The first example of such was the [[North American X-15]] spaceplane, which conducted two crewed flights which reached an altitude of over  {{convert|100|km|mi}} in the 1960s.  This first reusable spacecraft was air-launched on a suborbital trajectory on July 19, 1963.

The first reusable orbital spaceplane was the [[Space Shuttle orbiter]]. The first orbiter to fly in space, the [[Space Shuttle Columbia|Space Shuttle ''Columbia'']], was launched by the USA on the 20th anniversary of [[Yuri Gagarin]]'s flight, on April 12, 1981. During the Shuttle era, six orbiters were built, all of which have flown in the atmosphere and five of which have flown in space. ''[[Space Shuttle Enterprise|Enterprise]]'' was used only for approach and landing tests, launching from the back of a [[Shuttle Carrier Aircraft|Boeing 747 SCA]] and gliding to deadstick landings at [[Edwards AFB, California]]. The first Space Shuttle to fly into space was ''[[Space Shuttle Columbia|Columbia]]'', followed by ''[[Space Shuttle Challenger|Challenger]]'', ''[[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]'', ''[[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Atlantis]]'', and ''[[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]''. ''Endeavour'' was built to replace ''Challenger'' when it was [[STS-51-L|lost]] in January 1986. ''Columbia'' [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|broke up]] during reentry in February 2003.

The first autonomous reusable spaceplane was the [[Buran programme|''Buran''-class shuttle]], launched by the USSR on November 15, 1988, although it made only one flight and this was uncrewed. This [[spaceplane]] was designed for a crew and strongly resembled the U.S. Space Shuttle, although its drop-off boosters used liquid propellants and its main engines were located at the base of what would be the external tank in the American Shuttle. Lack of funding, complicated by the [[dissolution of the USSR]], prevented any further flights of Buran. The Space Shuttle was subsequently modified to allow for autonomous re-entry in case of necessity.

Per the [[Vision for Space Exploration]], the Space Shuttle was retired in 2011 mainly due to its old age and high cost of program reaching over a billion dollars per flight. The Shuttle's human transport role is to be replaced by [[SpaceX]]'s [[SpaceX Dragon 2]] and [[Boeing]]'s [[CST-100 Starliner]]. Dragon 2's first crewed flight occurred on May 30, 2020.<ref>{{cite tweet|user=SpaceX|number=1266812530833240064|date=30 May 2020|title=Liftoff!|access-date=31 May 2020}}</ref> The Shuttle's heavy cargo transport role is to be replaced by expendable rockets such as the [[Space Launch System]] and [[United Launch Alliance|ULA]]'s [[Vulcan (rocket)|Vulcan]] rocket, as well as the commercial launch vehicles.

[[Scaled Composites]]' [[SpaceShipOne]] was a reusable suborbital [[spaceplane]] that carried pilots [[Mike Melvill]] and [[Brian Binnie]] on consecutive flights in 2004 to win the [[Ansari X Prize]]. [[The Spaceship Company]] built a successor [[SpaceShipTwo]]. A fleet of SpaceShipTwos operated by [[Virgin Galactic]] was planned to begin reusable [[private spaceflight]] carrying paying passengers in 2014, but was delayed after the [[VSS Enterprise crash|crash of VSS ''Enterprise'']].

==== Space Shuttle ====
{{Main|Space Shuttle}}
[[File:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg|thumb|US [[Space Shuttle]] flew 135 times from 1981 to 2011, supporting [[Mir]], the [[Hubble Space Telescope]], and the [[International Space Station]]. (''Columbia''{{'s}} [[STS-1|maiden launch]], which had a white external tank, shown)|alt=Columbia's first launch on the mission]]
The [[Space Shuttle]] is a retired reusable Low Earth Orbital launch system. It consisted of [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|two reusable Solid Rocket Boosters]] that landed by parachute, were recovered at sea, and were the most powerful rocket motors ever made until they were superseded by those of [[NASA|NASA’s]] [[Space Launch System|SLS]] rocket, with a liftoff thrust of {{convert|2,800,000|lbf|MN}}, which soon increased to {{convert|3,300,000|lbf|MN}} per booster,<ref name=braeunig>{{cite web|url=http://www.braeunig.us/space/specs/shuttle.htm|title=Space Launchers - Space Shuttle|website=www.braeunig.us|access-date=February 16, 2018}}</ref> and were fueled by a combination of [[Polybutadiene acrylonitrile|PBAN]] and [[Ammonium perchlorate composite propellant|APCP]], the [[Space Shuttle orbiter|Space Shuttle Orbiter]], with 3 [[RS-25]] engines that used a [[liquid oxygen]]/[[liquid hydrogen]] propellant combination, and the bright orange throwaway [[Space Shuttle external tank]] from which the RS-25 engines sourced their fuel. The orbiter was a spaceplane that was launched at NASA’s [[Kennedy Space Center|Kennedy Space Centre]] and landed mainly at the [[Shuttle Landing Facility]], which is part of Kennedy Space Centre. A second launch site, [[Vandenberg Space Launch Complex 6]] in [[California]], was revamped so it could be used to launch the shuttles, but it was never used. The launch system could lift about {{convert|29|tonnes|lb}} into an eastward [[Low Earth orbit|Low Earth Orbit]]. Each orbiter weighed roughly {{convert|78|tonnes|lb}}, however the different orbiters had differing weights and thus payloads, with ''Columbia'' being the heaviest orbiter, ''Challenger'' being lighter than ''Columbia but'' still heavier than the other three. The orbiter structure was mostly composed of aluminium alloy. The orbiter had seven seats for crew members, though on [[STS-61-A]] the launch took place with 8 crew onboard. The orbiters had {{convert|4.6|m|ft}} wide by {{convert|18|m|ft}} long payload bays and also were equipped with a {{convert|15.2|m|ft}} [[Canadarm|CanadaArm1]], an upgraded version of which is used on the [[International Space Station]]. The heat shield (or [[Space Shuttle thermal protection system|Thermal Protection System]]) of the orbiter, used to protect it from extreme levels of heat during [[Atmospheric entry|atmospheric reentry]] and the cold of space, was made up of different materials depending on weight and how much heating a particular area on the shuttle would receive during reentry, which ranged from over {{convert|1600|C|F|sigfig=2|abbr=on|order=flip}} to under {{convert|370|C|F|sigfig=2|abbr=on|order=flip}}. The orbiter was manually operated, though an autonomous landing system was added while the shuttle was still on service. It had an in orbit maneouvreing system known as the Orbital Manoeuvring System, which used the hypergolic propellants [[Monomethylhydrazine|monomethylhydrazine (MMH)]] and [[dinitrogen tetroxide]], which was used for orbital insertion, changes to orbits and the deorbit burn.
[[File:SpaceShuttleGroundProcessingActual.jpg|thumb|right|Refurbishing the orbiters and the solid rocket boosters after flight was very complex, expensive and slow. The shortest time between landing and reflight for a Space Shuttle was 54 days for the Space Shuttle [[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Atlantis]].]]
{{main|Criticism of the Space Shuttle Program}}
Though the shuttle’s goals were to drastically decrease launch costs, it did not do so, ending up being much more expensive than similar expendable launchers. This was due to expensive refurbishment costs and the external tank being expended. Once a landing had occurred, the SRBs and many parts of the orbiter had to be disassembled for inspection, which was long and arduous. Furthermore, the RS-25 engines had to be replaced every few flights. Each of the heat shielding tiles had to go in one specific area on the orbiter, increasing complexity more. Adding to this, the shuttle was a rather dangerous system, with fragile heat shielding tiles, some being so fragile that one could easily scrape it off by hand, often having been damaged in many flights. After 30 years in service from 1981 to 2011 and 135 flights, the shuttle was retired from service due to the cost of maintaining the shuttles, and the 3 remaining orbiters (the other two were destroyed in accidents) were prepared to be displayed in museums.

=== Other ===
Some spacecraft do not fit particularly well into any of the general spacecraft categories. This is a list of these spacecraft.

==== SpaceX Starship ====
{{Main|SpaceX Starship (spacecraft)}}
Starship is a spacecraft and [[Upper stage|second stage]]<ref name="StarshipHomepage">{{cite web |title=SpaceX - Starship |url=https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship/ |access-date=November 29, 2023 |website=[[SpaceX]] |quote=Starship is the fully reusable spacecraft and second stage of the Starship system.}}</ref> under development by American aerospace company [[SpaceX]]. Stacked atop its booster, [[SpaceX Super Heavy|Super Heavy]], it composes the identically named [[SpaceX Starship|Starship]] [[Super heavy-lift launch vehicle|super heavy-lift]] [[space vehicle]]. The spacecraft is designed to transport both crew and cargo to a variety of destinations, including Earth orbit, the Moon, Mars, and potentially beyond. It is intended to enable long duration [[Interplanetary spaceflight|interplanetary]] flights for a crew of up to 100 people.<ref name="StarshipHomepage" /> It will also be capable of point-to-point transport on Earth, enabling travel to anywhere in the world in less than an hour. Furthermore, the spacecraft will be used to [[Orbital propellant depot|refuel]] other Starship vehicles to allow them to reach higher orbits to and other space destinations. [[Elon Musk]], the CEO of SpaceX, estimated in a tweet that 8 launches would be needed to completely refuel a Starship in [[low Earth orbit]], extrapolating this from Starship's payload to orbit and how much fuel a fully fueled Starship contains.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Musk Says That Refueling Starship For Lunar Landings will Take 8 Launches (Maybe 4) |date=18 August 2021 |url=https://www.universetoday.com/152220/musk-says-that-refueling-starship-for-lunar-landings-will-take-8-launches-maybe-4/}}</ref> To land on bodies without an atmosphere, such as the Moon, Starship will fire its engines and thrusters to slow down.<ref name="Foust-2021">{{Cite web |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=6 January 2021 |title=SpaceX, Blue Origin, and Dynetics Compete to Build the Next Moon Lander |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/spacex-blue-origin-and-dynetics-compete-to-build-the-next-moon-lander |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129041255/https://spectrum.ieee.org/spacex-blue-origin-and-dynetics-compete-to-build-the-next-moon-lander |archive-date=29 November 2021 |access-date=29 November 2021 |work=[[IEEE Spectrum]] |language=en}}</ref>

==== Mission Extension Vehicle ====
{{Main|Mission Extension Vehicle}}
The Mission Extension Vehicle is a robotic spacecraft designed to prolong the life on another spacecraft. It works by docking to its target spacecraft, then correcting its orientation or orbit. This also allows it to rescue a satellite which is in the wrong orbit by using its own fuel to move its target to the correct orbit. The project is currently managed by Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems. As of 2023, 2 have been launched. The first launched on a [[Proton (rocket family)|Proton]] rocket on 9 October 2019, and did a rendezvous with [[Intelsat 901|Intelsat-901]] on 25 February 2020. It will remain with the satellite until 2025 before the satellite is moved to a final graveyard orbit and the vehicle does a rendezvous with another satellite. The other one launched on an [[Ariane 5]] rocket on 15 August 2020.