Editing Southeast Asia (section)

===Prehistory===
[[File:Lubang Jeriji Saléh cave painting of Bull.jpg|thumb|The depiction of a bull found in the [[Lubang Jeriji Saleh]], [[Indonesia]], in 2018, is considered among the world’s oldest known figurative paintings. The painting is estimated to have been created around 40,000 to 52,000 years ago, or even earlier.]]
[[File:Situs_Megalitikum_Gunung_Padang_Cianjur.jpg|thumb|[[Gunung Padang]], the largest megalithic site in Southeast Asia.]]

The region was already inhabited by ''[[Homo erectus]]'' from approximately 1,500,000 years ago during the [[Middle Pleistocene]] age.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=First Islanders: Prehistory and Human Migration in Island Southeast Asia|last=Bellwood|first=Peter|date=10 April 2017|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-1-119-25154-5|edition=1|language=en}}</ref> Distinct ''[[Human|Homo sapiens]]'' groups, ancestral to Eastern non-African (related to East Asians as well as Papuans) populations, reached the region by between 50,000BC to 70,000BC, with some arguing earlier.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lipson|first1=Mark|last2=Reich|first2=David|date=April 2017|title=A Working Model of the Deep Relationships of Diverse Modern Human Genetic Lineages Outside of Africa|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution|volume=34|issue=4|pages=889–902|doi=10.1093/molbev/msw293|issn=0737-4038|pmc=5400393|pmid=28074030}}</ref><ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov">{{Cite journal|last1=Larena|first1=Maximilian|last2=Sanchez-Quinto|first2=Federico|last3=Sjödin|first3=Per|last4=McKenna|first4=James|last5=Ebeo|first5=Carlo|last6=Reyes|first6=Rebecca|last7=Casel|first7=Ophelia|last8=Huang|first8=Jin-Yuan|last9=Hagada|first9=Kim Pullupul|last10=Guilay|first10=Dennis|last11=Reyes|first11=Jennelyn|date=30 March 2021|title=Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=118|issue=13|pages=e2026132118|doi=10.1073/pnas.2026132118|issn=0027-8424|pmc=8020671|pmid=33753512|bibcode=2021PNAS..11826132L |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Rock art]] (parietal art) dating from 40,000 to 60,000 years ago (which is currently the world's oldest) has been discovered in the caves of [[Sulawesi]] and [[Borneo]] ([[Kalimantan]]).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aubert |first=M. |display-authors=et al. |date=11 December 2019 |title=Earliest hunting scene in prehistoric art. |journal=Nature |volume=576 |issue=7787 |pages=442–445 |bibcode=2019Natur.576..442A |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1806-y |pmid=31827284 |s2cid=209311825}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Smith|first=Kiona N.|date=9 November 2018|title=The world's oldest figurative drawing depicts a wounded animal|url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2018/11/the-worlds-oldest-figurative-drawing-depicts-a-wounded-animal/|access-date=6 January 2022|website=Ars Technica|language=en-us|archive-date=9 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109201742/https://arstechnica.com/science/2018/11/the-worlds-oldest-figurative-drawing-depicts-a-wounded-animal/|url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[Homo floresiensis]]'' also lived in the area up until at least 50,000 years ago, after which they became extinct.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Morwood, M. J. | author2=Brown, P.| author3= Jatmiko| author4= Sutikna, T.| author5= Wahyu Saptomo, E.| author6= Westaway, K. E.| author7= Rokus Awe Due| author8= Roberts, R. G.| author9= Maeda, T.| author10= Wasisto, S.| author11= Djubiantono, T. | date = 13 October 2005 | title = Further evidence for small-bodied hominins from the Late Pleistocene of Flores, Indonesia|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume = 437 | pages = 1012–1017 | doi = 10.1038/nature04022 | pmid=16229067 | issue=7061| bibcode=2005Natur.437.1012M| s2cid=4302539}}</ref> During much of this time the present-day islands of [[Western Indonesia]] were joined into a single landmass with the [[Malay Peninsula]] known as [[Sundaland]] due to much lower sea levels. The [[Gulf of Thailand]] was dry land which connected Sundaland with [[Mainland Southeast Asia]].

Ancient remains of hunter-gatherers in Maritime Southeast Asia, such as one Holocene hunter-gatherer from [[South Sulawesi]], had ancestry from both the Papuan-related and East Asian-related branches of the Eastern non-African lineage. The hunter-gatherer individual had approximately ~50% "Basal-East Asian" ancestry, and was positioned in between modern East Asians and Papuans of Oceania. The authors concluded that East Asian-related ancestry expanded from Mainland Southeast Asia into Maritime Southeast Asia much earlier than previously suggested, as early as 25,000BC, long before the expansion of [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] and [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] groups.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Carlhoff|first1=Selina|last2=Duli|first2=Akin|last3=Nägele|first3=Kathrin|last4=Nur|first4=Muhammad|last5=Skov|first5=Laurits|last6=Sumantri|first6=Iwan|last7=Oktaviana|first7=Adhi Agus|last8=Hakim|first8=Budianto|last9=Burhan|first9=Basran|last10=Syahdar|first10=Fardi Ali|last11=McGahan|first11=David P.|date=August 2021|title=Genome of a middle Holocene hunter-gatherer from Wallacea|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=596|issue=7873|pages=543–547|doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03823-6|issn=1476-4687|pmid=34433944|pmc=8387238|bibcode=2021Natur.596..543C|quote=The [[qpGraph]] analysis confirmed this branching pattern, with the Leang Panninge individual branching off from the Near Oceanian clade after the Denisovan gene flow, although with the most supported topology indicating around 50% of a basal East Asian component contributing to the Leang Panninge genome (Fig. 3c, Supplementary Figs. 7–11).|hdl-access=free|hdl=10072/407535}}</ref>

Distinctive [[East Asian people|Basal-East Asian]] (East-Eurasian) ancestry was recently found to have originated in Mainland Southeast Asia at ~50,000BC, and expanded through multiple migration waves southwards and northwards respectively. Geneflow of East Asian-related ancestry into [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] and [[Oceania]] could be estimated to ~25,000BC (possibly also earlier). The pre-Neolithic Papuan-related populations of Maritime Southeast Asia were largely replaced by the expansion of various East Asian-related populations, beginning about 50,000BC to 25,000BC years ago from Mainland Southeast Asia. The remainders, known as Negritos, form small minority groups in geographically isolated regions. Southeast Asia was dominated by East Asian-related ancestry already in 15,000BC, predating the expansion of [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] and [[Austronesian peoples]].<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov"/>
[[File:The proposed route of Austroasiatic and Austronesian migration into Indonesia and the geographic distribution of sites that have produced red-slipped and cord-marked pottery.png|left|thumb|The [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] and [[Austronesian expansion]]s into Maritime Southeast Asia.]]
In the late [[Neolithic]], the [[Austronesian people]]s, who form the majority of the modern population in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Timor-Leste, migrated to Southeast Asia from [[Taiwan]] in the first seaborne human migration known as the [[Austronesian expansion|Austronesian Expansion]]. They arrived in the northern Philippines between 7,000 BC to 2,200 BC and rapidly spread further into the [[Northern Mariana Islands]] and [[Borneo]] by 1500 BC; [[Island Melanesia]] by 1300 BC; and to the rest of [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], southern [[Vietnam]], and [[Palau]] by 1000 BC.<ref name="Bellwood 1991">{{cite journal |last1=Bellwood |first1=Peter |title=The Austronesian Dispersal and the Origin of Languages |journal=Scientific American |date=1991 |volume=265 |issue=1 |pages=88–93 |jstor=24936983|bibcode=1991SciAm.265a..88B |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0791-88 }}</ref><ref name="hill&serjeanston1989">{{cite book|title=The Colonization of the Pacific: A Genetic Trail|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1989|isbn=978-0-19-857695-2|editor=Hill|editor-first=Adrian V.S.|series=Research Monographs on Human Population Biology No. 7|editor2=Serjeantson|editor-first2=Susan W.|editor-link2=Susan Serjeantson}}</ref> They often settled along coastal areas, replacing and assimilating the diverse preexisting peoples.<ref>{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Jean Gelman |title=Indonesia: Peoples and Histories |url=https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean |url-access=registration |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2003 |location= New Haven and London |isbn=978-0-300-10518-6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean/page/5 5–7]}}</ref><ref name="Matsumura2018">{{cite journal | vauthors = Matsumura H, Shinoda KI, Shimanjuntak T, Oktaviana AA, Noerwidi S, Octavianus Sofian H, Prastiningtyas D, Nguyen LC, Kakuda T, Kanzawa-Kiriyama H, Adachi N, Hung HC, Fan X, Wu X, Willis A, Oxenham MF | display-authors = 6 | title = Cranio-morphometric and aDNA corroboration of the Austronesian dispersal model in ancient Island Southeast Asia: Support from Gua Harimau, Indonesia | journal = PLOS ONE| volume = 13 | issue = 6 | pages = e0198689 | date = 22 June 2018 | pmid = 29933384 | pmc = 6014653 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0198689 | bibcode = 2018PLoSO..1398689M | s2cid = 49377747 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov"/>

The [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] peoples of Southeast Asia have been [[sailor|seafarers]] for thousands of years. They spread eastwards to [[Micronesia]] and [[Polynesia]], as well as westwards to [[Madagascar]], becoming the ancestors of modern-day [[Malagasy peoples|Malagasy]], [[Micronesian people|Micronesians]], [[Melanesians]], and [[Polynesians]].<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|title=A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100–1500|last=Hall|first=Kenneth R.|date=16 January 2011|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-0-7425-6761-0|location=Lanham|language=en}}</ref> Passage through the Indian Ocean aided the colonisation of Madagascar, as well as commerce between Western Asia, eastern coast of India and Chinese southern coast.<ref name=":22" /> Gold from [[Sumatra]] is thought to have reached as far west as Rome. [[Pliny the Elder]] wrote in his ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'' about [[Chryse and Argyre]], two legendary islands rich in gold and silver, located in the Indian Ocean. Their vessels, such as the [[vinta]], were capable to sail across the ocean. [[Ferdinand Magellan|Magellan]]'s voyage records how much more manoeuvrable their vessels were, as compared to the European ships.<ref name="Bergreen.L_Magellan">Laurence Bergreen, Over the Edge of the World: Magellan's Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe, HarperCollins Publishers, 2003, hardcover 480 pages, {{ISBN|978-0-06-621173-2}}</ref> A [[Enrique of Malacca|slave]] from the [[Sulu Sea]] was believed to have been used in the [[Magellan expedition]] as a translator.

Studies presented by the [[Human Genome Organisation]] (HUGO) through genetic studies of the various peoples of Asia show empirically that there was a single migration event from Africa, whereby the early people travelled along the south coast of Asia, first entered the Malay Peninsula 50,000–90,000 years ago. The Orang Asli, in particular the [[Semang]] who show Negrito characteristics, are the direct descendants of these earliest settlers of Southeast Asia. These early people diversified and travelled slowly northwards to China, and the populations of Southeast Asia show greater genetic diversity than the younger population of China.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8406506.stm | work=BBC News | title=Genetic 'map' of Asia's diversity | date=11 December 2009 | access-date=5 November 2010 | archive-date=29 January 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120129232943/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8406506.stm | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/187435|title=Geneticist clarifies role of Proto-Malays in human origin|date=25 January 2012|work=Malaysiakini|access-date=27 August 2017|language=en|archive-date=27 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180727181033/https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/187435|url-status=live}}</ref>

Solheim and others have shown evidence for a ''Nusantao'' maritime trading network ranging from [[Vietnam]] to the rest of the archipelago as early as 5000 BC to 1 AD.<ref>Solheim, ''Journal of East Asian Archaeology'', 2000, '''2''':1–2, pp. 273–284(12)</ref> The [[Bronze Age]] [[Dong Son culture]] flourished in [[Northern Vietnam]] from about 1000 BC to 1 BC. Its influence spread to other parts Southeast Asia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.littlevietnamtours.com.vn/about_vietnam/vietnam_culture/dong_son_culture.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130426081801/http://www.littlevietnamtours.com.vn/about_vietnam/vietnam_culture/dong_son_culture.php |url-status=dead |title=Vietnam Tours|archive-date=26 April 2013}}</ref><ref>Nola Cooke, Tana Li, James Anderson – The Tongking Gulf Through History – Page 46 2011 -"Nishimura actually suggested the Đông Sơn phase belonged in the late metal age, and some other Japanese scholars argued that, contrary to the conventional belief that the Han invasion ended Đông Sơn culture, Đông Sơn artifacts, ..."</ref><ref>Vietnam Fine Arts Museum 2000 "... the bronze cylindrical jars, drums, Weapons and tools which were sophistically carved and belonged to the World-famous Đông Sơn culture dating from thousands of years; the Sculptures in the round, the ornamental architectural Sculptures ..."</ref> The region entered the [[Iron Age]] era in 500 BC, when iron was forged also in northern Vietnam still under Dong Son, due to its frequent interactions with neighbouring China.<ref name=":0" />

[[File:Vietnam, tamburo di song da, detto tamburo Moulié, cultura di Sông Dông Son II, I millennio ac. 01.JPG|thumb|Bronze drum from [[Sông Đà (Mường Lay)|Sông Đà]], northern Vietnam. Mid-1st millennium BC]]

Most Southeast Asian people were originally [[animism|animist]], engaged in ancestors, nature, and spirits worship. These belief systems were later supplanted by [[Hinduism]] and Buddhism after the region, especially coastal areas, came under contact with [[Indian subcontinent]] during the first century.<ref name="jgonda">[[Jan Gonda]], The Indian Religions in Pre-Islamic Indonesia and their survival in Bali, in {{Google books|X7YfAAAAIAAJ|Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 3 Southeast Asia, Religions|page=1}}, pp. 1–54</ref> Indian Brahmins and traders brought Hinduism to the region and made contacts with local courts.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA587|title=Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor|last=Ooi|first=Keat Gin|date=2004|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-770-2|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=14 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614174028/https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA587|url-status=live}}</ref> Local rulers converted to Hinduism or Buddhism and adopted Indian religious traditions to reinforce their legitimacy, elevate ritual status above their fellow chief counterparts and facilitate trade with South Asian states. They periodically invited Indian Brahmins into their realms and began a gradual process of [[Indianized kingdom|Indianisation]] in the region.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fjsEn3w4TPgC|title=A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100–1500|last=Hall|first=Kenneth R.|date=2010|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-0-7425-6762-7|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=1 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191201044039/https://books.google.com/books?id=fjsEn3w4TPgC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Vanaik 1997">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WYtKhu6rktAC&pg=PA147|title=The Furies of Indian Communalism: Religion, Modernity, and Secularization|last=Vanaik|first=Achin|date=1997|publisher=Verso|isbn=978-1-85984-016-0|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=29 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729203937/https://books.google.com/books?id=WYtKhu6rktAC&pg=PA147|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Montgomery 2002">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RkeOLTrPDI0C&pg=PA68|title=The Lopsided Spread of Christianity: Toward an Understanding of the Diffusion of Religions|last=Montgomery|first=Robert L.|date=2002|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-275-97361-2|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=29 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729203801/https://books.google.com/books?id=RkeOLTrPDI0C&pg=PA68|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Shaivism]] was the dominant religious tradition of many southern Indian Hindu kingdoms during the first century. It then spread into Southeast Asia via the [[Bay of Bengal]], Indochina, then Malay Archipelago, leading to thousands of Shiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving with [[Buddhism]] in the region.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X7YfAAAAIAAJ|title=Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 3 Southeast Asia, Religions|author=Jan Gonda|publisher=BRILL Academic|year=1975|isbn=978-90-04-04330-5|pages=3–20, 35–36, 49–51|author-link=Jan Gonda|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=5 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205085012/https://books.google.com/books?id=X7YfAAAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="bisschopoup2">{{cite web|title=Shaivism|url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399318/obo-9780195399318-0051.xml|access-date=6 January 2022|website=obo|language=en|archive-date=2 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180102174639/http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399318/obo-9780195399318-0051.xml|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Theravada Buddhism]] entered the region during the third century, via maritime trade routes between the region and [[Sri Lanka]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S2-TDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA231|title=Archaeology of Religion: Cultures and Their Beliefs in Worldwide Context|last=Steadman|first=Sharon R.|date=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-315-43388-2|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=31 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731153605/https://books.google.com/books?id=S2-TDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA231|url-status=live}}</ref> Buddhism later established a strong presence in [[Funan]] region in the fifth century. In present-day mainland Southeast Asia, Theravada is still the dominant branch of Buddhism, practised by the Thai, Burmese, and Cambodian Buddhists. This branch was fused with the Hindu-influenced Khmer culture. [[Mahayana|Mahayana Buddhism]] established presence in Maritime Southeast Asia, brought by Chinese monks during their transit in the region en route to [[Nalanda]].<ref name=":3" /> It is still the dominant branch of Buddhism practised by Indonesian and Malaysian Buddhists.

The spread of these two Indian religions confined the adherents of Southeast Asian indigenous beliefs into remote inland areas. The [[Maluku Islands]] and New Guinea were never Indianised and its native people were predominantly animists until the 15th century when [[Islam]] began to spread in those areas.<ref>{{cite book|last=Timme|first=Elke|title=A Presença Portuguesa nas Ilhas das Moluccas 1511 – 1605|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2QMCpUCxFrUC&pg=PA3|year=2005|publisher=GRIN Verlag|isbn=978-3-638-43208-5|page=3|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=29 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729203037/https://books.google.com/books?id=2QMCpUCxFrUC&pg=PA3|url-status=live}}</ref> While in Vietnam, Buddhism never managed to develop strong institutional networks due to strong Chinese influence.<ref>{{cite book|last=Church|first=Peter|title=A Short History of South-East Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FW8wDgAAQBAJ|year=2017|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-119-06249-3|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=29 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729213629/https://books.google.com/books?id=FW8wDgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> In present-day Southeast Asia, Vietnam is the only country where [[Vietnamese folk religion|its folk religion]] makes up the plurality.<ref>{{cite web|date=18 December 2012|title=The Global Religious Landscape|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/|access-date=6 January 2022|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|language=en-US|archive-date=19 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719060225/http://www.pewforum.org/global-religious-landscape.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://features.pewforum.org/grl/population-percentage.php|title=Global Religious Landscape|publisher=The Pew Forum|access-date=4 May 2014|archive-date=1 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130101080244/http://features.pewforum.org/grl/population-percentage.php|url-status=dead}}</ref> Recently, Vietnamese folk religion is undergoing a revival with the support of the government.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Roszko|first=Edyta|date=1 March 2012|title=From Spiritual Homes to National Shrines: Religious Traditions and Nation-Building in Vietnam|journal=East Asia|language=en|volume=29|issue=1|pages=25–41|doi=10.1007/s12140-011-9156-x|issn=1096-6838|citeseerx=10.1.1.467.6835|s2cid=52084986}}</ref> Elsewhere, there are [[ethnic groups in Southeast Asia]] that resisted conversion and still retain their original animist beliefs, such as the [[Dayak people|Dayaks]] in [[Kalimantan]], the [[Igorot people|Igorots]] in Luzon, and the [[Shan people|Shans]] in eastern Myanmar.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ancient Religions of the Austronesian World: From Australasia to Taiwan|last=Baldick|first=Julian|date=15 June 2013|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-78076-366-8|location=London|language=en}}</ref>