Editing Sonora (section)

===20th century===
[[File:Cananea.jpg|thumb|The Cananea miners' strike 1906]]
The policies of the Díaz government caused resentment not only among the Yaquis, but also throughout the country.<ref name="hamnett192">Hamnett, p. 192</ref> One of the preludes to the [[Mexican Revolution]] was the [[Cananea strike|1906 Cananea miner's strike]]. Approximately 2,000 strikers sought negotiations with American mine owner William Greene, but he refused to meet with them. The strike quickly turned violent when the miners tried to take control of the mine and gunfire was exchanged. Greene requested help from federal troops, but when it was obvious they could not arrive in time, he appealed to the governments of Arizona and Sonora to allow Arizona volunteers to assist him. This increased the scale of the violence. When Mexican federal troops arrived two days later, they put everything to a brutal end, with the suspected leaders of the strike executed. The heavy-handed way in which Díaz had handled the strike made resentment against Diaz grow, with more strikes beginning in other areas.<ref name="kirkwood127">{{cite book |last= Kirkwood |first= Burton |title= History of Mexico |url= https://archive.org/details/historyofmexico00burt |url-access= registration |year=2000 |publisher= Greenwood Press |location= Westport, CT, USA |isbn= 978-1-4039-6258-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmexico00burt/page/127 127]}}</ref><ref name="rincones3940">Gonzalez, pp. 39–40</ref>

In late 1910, the Mexican Revolution began in earnest, and Díaz was quickly deposed. The governor of [[Coahuila]], [[Venustiano Carranza]], sought refuge in Sonora, and became one of the principal political leaders during the rest of the war, with his main base of operations in Hermosillo. A number of the revolutionary leaders who joined Carranza in Sonora did not come from peasant backgrounds, but rather the lower middle class of hacienda-managers, shopkeepers, mill-workers, or schoolteachers, who opposed large-scale landowners and the Porfirian elite.<ref name="hamnett220">Hamnett, p. 220</ref> After Díaz was deposed, Carranza competed for power against [[Álvaro Obregón]] and others.<ref name="rincones3940"/> The Yaquis joined with Álvaro Obregón's forces after 1913.<ref name="hamnett192"/>

By 1920, Carranza had become president of Mexico, but found himself opposed by Obregón and others. Carranza tried to suppress political opposition in Sonora, which led to the [[Plan of Agua Prieta]], which formalized the resistance to Carranza by Obregón and his allies (primarily [[Abelardo L. Rodríguez]], [[Benjamín G. Hill|Benjamín Hill]] and [[Plutarco Elías Calles]]). This movement soon dominated the political situation, but it caused widespread political instability in doing so.<ref name="kirkwood152">{{cite book |last= Kirkwood |first= Burton |title= History of Mexico |url= https://archive.org/details/historyofmexico00burt |url-access= registration |year=2000 |publisher= Greenwood Press |location= Westport, CT, USA |isbn= 978-1-4039-6258-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmexico00burt/page/152 152]}}</ref> Obregón deposed Carranza and became the next president of Mexico. For the 1924 presidential elections, Obregón chose to succeed himself Plutarco Elias Calles, who was also a revolutionary leader from Sonora.<ref name="kirkwood161">{{cite book |last= Kirkwood |first= Burton |title= History of Mexico |url= https://archive.org/details/historyofmexico00burt |url-access= registration |year=2000 |publisher= Greenwood Press |location= Westport, CT, USA |isbn= 978-1-4039-6258-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmexico00burt/page/161 161]}}</ref> This effectively ended the war, but hostilities had again destroyed the Sonoran economy.<ref name="rincones3940"/> From 1920 to the early 1930s, four Sonorans came to occupy the Mexican presidency: [[Adolfo de la Huerta]], Obregón, Calles and Rodríguez.<ref name="turhistoria"/>

The Chinese first arrived at Guaymas in the late 19th century and congregated there and in Hermosillo. Over the following decades, they moved into growing communities such as [[Magdalena de Kino|Magdalena]] and [[Cananea]]. Rather than working in the fields, most started their own small businesses, networking with other Chinese.<ref name="leerob92"/> These businesses spanned a wide range of industries from manufacturing to retail sales of nearly every type of merchandise.<ref name="leerob94">Lee, p. 94</ref> The Chinese in Sonora not only become successful shopkeepers, they eventually came to control local small businesses in many areas of the state.<ref name="leerob89">Lee, p. 89</ref> By 1910, the Chinese population in Sonora was 4,486 out of a total population of 265,383, making them the largest foreign presence in the state, with only North Americans a close second at 3,164. Almost none were female, as there were only 82 Chinese females in the entire country at the time. The Chinese population reached its peak in 1919 with 6,078 people, again with almost no Chinese women.<ref name="leerob89"/>
[[File:Colonia Centro Nogales.jpg|thumb|upright|Colonia Centro, calle Pierson, Nogales]]

Resentment against Chinese success began quickly, and [[Sinophobia]] rose sharply during the Mexican Revolution as many Chinese prospered despite the war, and many attacks were targeted against them.<ref name="leerob94"/> The first organized anti-Chinese campaign in Sonora began in 1916 in Magdalena.<ref name="leerob98">Lee, p. 98</ref> A more serious campaign began in 1925, calling for their expulsion from the state.<ref name="leerob103">Lee, p. 103</ref> Mass expulsions were mostly carried out in Sonora and Sinaloa, partly because of their large populations, but the Chinese, often with their Mexican wives and children, were deported from all over the country. Some were returned to China but many others were forced to enter the United States through the border with Sonora, even though Chinese exclusion laws were still in effect there.<ref name="camacho546">{{cite journal |last1= Schiavone Camacho |first1= Julia Maria |date=November 2009 |title=Crossing Boundaries, Claiming a Homeland: The Mexican Chinese Transpacific Journey to Becoming Mexican, 1930s–1960s |journal= Pacific Historical Review |location=Berkeley |volume=78 |issue=4 |page=546 |doi=10.1525/phr.2009.78.4.545}}</ref> Sonoran governor [[Rodolfo Elias Calles]] was responsible for the expulsion of most Chinese-Mexican families into United States territory. Despite the diplomatic problems this caused, Elias Calles did not stop the expulsions until he himself was expelled from Sonora. However, by that time almost all of Sonora's Chinese-Mexicans had disappeared.<ref name="beatriz75">{{Cite thesis |degree=B.A. |title= Immigraciones chinas a Mexico durante el periodo Obregon-Calles (1920–1928) |author= Maria Enriqueta Beatriz Guajardo Peredo |year=1989 |publisher= Escuela Nacional de Antropolgía e Historia INAH-SEP |page=75}}</ref> By the 1940 census, only 92 Chinese were still living in Sonora, with more than two-thirds of these having acquired Mexican citizenship. This had the unintended consequence of nearly collapsing the Sonoran economy.<ref name="augustine">{{cite journal |last1=Augustine-Adams |first1=Kif |date=Spring 2009 |title=Making Mexico: Legal Nationality, Chinese Race, and the 1930 Population Census |journal=Law and History Review |publisher=University of Illinois |volume=27 |issue=1 |url=http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/lhr/27.1/adams.html |doi=10.1017/S073824800000167X |pages=113–144 |s2cid=145640831 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511122727/http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/lhr/27.1/adams.html |archive-date=2011-05-11 }}</ref>

The efforts at modernization and economic development begun in the Díaz period would continue through the Revolution and on through the rest of the 20th century. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the process of electrification greatly increased the demand for [[copper]], which led to a boom in mining in Sonora and neighboring Arizona. Cananea grew very quickly from a village of 900 to a city of 20,000. It also led to a network of roads, railroads and other connections across the border.<ref name="truett17">{{cite book |title= Fugitive Landscapes: The Forgotten History of the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands |last= Truett |first= Samuel |author2=William P. Clements  |year=2006 |publisher= Yale University Press |location= New Haven, CT, USA |isbn= 978-0-300-11091-3 |page=17}}</ref> However, organized development of the state's agriculture was put on hold because of the Revolution, the [[Great Depression]] and other political upheavals.<ref name="yetman5">Yetman, p. 5</ref>

In the 1930s, Sonora benefitted from a number of national policies aimed at developing the cities on the border with the United States and at building a number of dams to help develop agriculture and the general water supply.<ref name="rincones40">Gonzalez, p. 40</ref> Major agricultural reform was begun in the 1940s in the [[Mayo River (Mexico)|Mayo River]] area, when the delta was cleared of natural vegetation and made into farmland. Water for these farms was secure through the building of the Mocúzari Dam about {{Convert|15|mi|km}} from [[Navojoa]]. When it was completed in 1951, there was a system of canals, wells and highways to support large-scale agriculture for shipment to other places.<ref name="yetman5"/>

In the last half of the 20th century, the state's population has grown and foreign investment has increased due to its strategic location along the border and its port of Guaymas. More than 200 international and domestic enterprises moved into the state, allowing for the development of modern infrastructure such as highways, ports and airports, making the state one of the best connected in the country. A bridge was built over the [[Colorado River]] to link Sonora with neighboring [[Baja California]] in 1964. One important sector of the economy has been industry, culminating in the Ford automotive plant in Hermosillo and a number of assembly plants called maquiladoras on the border with the United States. One of the fastest-growing sectors of the economy has been tourism, now one of the most important sectors of the economy, especially along the coast, with the number of visitors there increasing every year. This has led to a surge in hotel infrastructure, especially in [[Puerto Peñasco]].<ref name="rincones40"/>
[[File:Puentec.JPG|thumb|Bridge over the Colorado River in Sonora]]

For most of the 20th century, Mexico was dominated by the [[Institutional Revolutionary Party]] (PRI). Discontent with this one-party system became prominent in the northern states of Mexico, including Sonora. As early as 1967, a competing party, the [[National Action Party (Mexico)|National Action Party]] (PAN), won control of the city government of Sonora's capital, Hermosillo.<ref name="hamnett268">Hamnett, p. 268</ref> PAN won important municipal victories in the state in 1983, which President [[Miguel de la Madrid|de la Madrid]] refused to officially recognize but was forced to let stand.<ref name="eisenstadt171">Eisenstadt, p. 171</ref> PAN's growing strength by the 1980s forced the PRI to nominate candidates who were similar to PAN, successful business executives who favored economic liberalization over traditional Mexican statism, preferred in the north of the country. Institutional Revolutionary Party won the Sonoran gubernatorial race in 1985, but it was heavily contested with obvious problems of fraud.<ref name="eisenstadt54">Eisenstadt, p. 54</ref> By the 1990s, PRI operatives caught manipulating election results were actually prosecuted by the Sonoran state attorney.<ref name="eisenstadt178">Eisenstadt, p. 178</ref> This along with other events in the country eventually led to the end of the one-party system when [[Vicente Fox]] was elected president in 2000. PAN has since dominated most of the north of the country, but Sonora did not have its first PAN governor until 2009, with the election of [[Guillermo Padrés Elías]].<ref name="porvez">{{cite news |title= Por vez primera PAN gobernará Sonora |url= http://www.elsiglodetorreon.com.mx/noticia/445126.html |newspaper=El Siglo de Torreón |location=Torreon, Mexico |date=July 7, 2009 |access-date=February 15, 2011 |language=es |trans-title=PAN will govern Sonora for the first time}}</ref>

Sonora's border with Arizona has received more attention since 2000, with the increase of illegal border crossings and drug smuggling, especially in rural areas such as around [[Naco, Sonora|Naco]], which is one of the main routes into the United States.<ref name="flores">{{cite journal |last=Flores |first=Nancy |date=May 2007 |title=Narcotráfico en Sonora |trans-title=Drugtrafficing in Sonora |journal=Revista Contralínea |url=http://www.contralinea.com.mx/archivo/2007/mayo2/htm/Narco_Sonora.htm |language=es |access-date=December 17, 2009 |archive-date=June 16, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090616153355/http://www.contralinea.com.mx/archivo/2007/mayo2/htm/Narco_Sonora.htm }}</ref> Starting in the 1990s, increased border patrols and the construction of corrugated metal and chain link fences in California and Texas dramatically cut illegal border crossing in these two states. This led illegal immigrants into the more dangerous desert areas of Arizona and New Mexico, which have mostly seen rises in illegal crossings since then.<ref name="crossingsrise">{{cite news |title= Illegal migrant crossings rise in Arizona |agency= Associated Press |url= http://www.azcentral.com/news/articles/2010/05/18/20100518arizona-has-more-migrants-crossing-from-mexico.html |newspaper= AZ Central |date= May 18, 2010 |access-date=February 11, 2011}}</ref><ref name="natgeo">{{cite journal |date=May 2007 |title= U.S.-Mexico Border |journal= National Geographic |url= http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/05/us-mexican-border/bowden-text.html|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080803011725/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/05/us-mexican-border/bowden-text.html|archive-date= August 3, 2008}}</ref> Many migrants now come to the Arizona border between [[Agua Prieta]] and [[Nogales, Sonora|Nogales]], with Naco as one of the preferred routes for "coyotes" (also called "polleros" or "enganchadores") or smugglers who offer to take migrants across.<ref name="flores"/><ref name="gonzalez">{{cite news |title=Naco, punto de confluencia de coyotes en busca de migrantes, a quienes extorsionan una y otra vez |first=Eduardo |last=Gonzalez Velazquez |url=http://www.lajornadajalisco.com.mx/2008/02/25/index.php?section=politica&article=010n1pol |newspaper=La Jornada de Jalisco |location=Guadalajara, Mexico |date=February 25, 2008 |access-date=December 17, 2009 |language=es |trans-title=Naco, gathering point of coyotes looking for migrants, who they extort again and again |archive-date=October 17, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091017020907/http://www.lajornadajalisco.com.mx/2008/02/25/index.php?section=politica&article=010n1pol }}</ref> Migrant shelters and hotel in border towns cater to those waiting to cross into Arizona.<ref name="showsperils">{{cite news |title= Mexican map shows perils of crossing: But some in the U.S. fear handouts will encourage migrants |first=Hugh |last= Dellios |newspaper=Knight Ridder Tribune Business News |date=January 25, 2006 |page=1}}</ref> Providing lodging for migrants is a growing business in Naco and other border towns, where the rate is between 200 and 300 [[Mexican peso|pesos]] per night per person. Many of these lodgings are filled with people who cannot cross the border.<ref name="gonzalez"/> One example is the Hospedaje Santa María, which is a run-down, two-story building.<ref name="natgeo"/>
[[File:Mexican-American border at Nogales.jpg|thumb|right|Picture of the border between Arizona, on the left, and Sonora, on the right]]

Forty-five percent of the deaths of migrants occur on the Arizona side of the border.<ref name="gonzalez"/> According to Arizonan authorities, 2010 was a record year for deaths in Arizona for people crossing illegally from Sonora, with the bodies of 252 crossers found in the deserts between the [[New Mexico]] and California borders. This broke the previous record of 234 in 2007, with nearly 2,000 found in this area since 2001.<ref name="mccombs">{{cite news |title= AZ border saw record 252 deaths in fiscal '10 |first= Brady |last= McCombs |url= http://azstarnet.com/news/local/border/article_c50f048f-acf9-52a9-8863-6e5969360091.html |newspaper= Arizona Daily Star |date= October 5, 2010 |access-date=February 11, 2011}}</ref> However, Mexican officials state that the figures are higher, with over four hundred dying in Arizona deserts in 2005 alone. In 2006, Mexican officials began to distribute maps of Arizona to Mexicans gathered in Sonoran border town with the intention of crossing illegally. The Mexican government stated the reason for the maps was to help Mexican avoid dangerous areas that have caused deaths from the desert's heat.<ref name="showsperils"/>

Migration and drug smuggling problem has affected most border towns. Many people make a living by catering migrants or working as "coyote" guides.<ref name="natgeo"/> People hoping to cross the border and those recently deported crowd the border area; some of these people return home, but many others decide to stay on the Sonoran border, working to earn money for another attempt. These workers put a strain on insufficient municipal medical services.<ref name="gonzalez"/> The walls, which have shut down much of the illegal crossing into Texas and California, have also been built on parts of the Arizona border, especially between towns such as the two Nacos and the two Nogaleses. The wall in Naco is four meters high and made of steel. It currently extends {{Convert|7.4|km|mi}}, but there are plans to extend it another {{Convert|40|km|mi}}. Security there was further tightened after the 2001 [[September 11 attacks]]. The [[United States Border Patrol|U.S. Border Patrol]] credits the wall and better surveillance technology with cutting the number of captured border crossers near Naco by half in 2006. People on both sides of the wall have mixed feelings about it.<ref name="natgeo"/>

Violence connected to drug smuggling on the border and in Mexico in general has caused problems with tourism, an important segment of the entire country. Federal troops have been stationed here due to the violence, which has the population divided. While the security they can provide is welcomed, there is concern about the violation of human rights. In 2005, the state began advertising campaigns to reassure Arizonans that it is safe to cross the border.<ref name="ustravel">{{cite news |title= Mexico campaigns to counter U.S. travel advisory |first=Tim |last= Steller |newspaper=Knight Ridder Tribune Business News |date=February 19, 2005 |page=1}}</ref><ref name="cruz">{{cite news |title=Acribillan a dos Cajemenses en Naco |first=Gregorio |last=Cruz |url=http://www.elregionaldesonora.com.mx/acribillan-a-dos-cajemenses-en-naco.html |newspaper=El Regional de Sonora |location=Hermosillo, Sonora |date=October 30, 2009 |access-date=December 17, 2009 |language=es |trans-title=Shot two from Cajeme in Naco |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100127074501/http://www.elregionaldesonora.com.mx/acribillan-a-dos-cajemenses-en-naco.html |archive-date=January 27, 2010 }}</ref>