Editing Sigismund II Augustus (section)

==Reign==
[[File:Letter of Roxelane to Sigismond Auguste complementing him for his accession to the throne 1549.jpg|thumb|Letter from [[Roxelana|Hürrem Sultan]], wife of [[Suleiman the Magnificent]], to Sigismund Augustus, complimenting him on his accession to the throne, 1549]]
Sigismund's reign was marked by a period of temporary stability and external expansion. He witnessed the bloodless introduction of the Protestant [[Reformation]] into Poland and Lithuania, and the ''peero-cratic'' upheaval that placed most political power in the hands of the [[Szlachta|Polish nobility]]; he saw the collapse of the [[Knights of the Sword]] in the north, which led to the Commonwealth's acquisition of [[Duchy of Livonia|Livonia]] as a Lutheran duchy and the consolidation of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] power in the southeast. A less imposing figure than his father, the elegant and refined Sigismund II Augustus was nevertheless an even more effective statesman than the stern and majestic [[Sigismund I the Old]].

Sigismund II possessed to a high degree the tenacity and patience that seem to have characterized all the [[Jagiellon Dynasty|Jagiellons]], and he added to these qualities a dexterity and diplomatic finesse. No other Polish king seems to have so thoroughly understood the nature of the Polish [[Sejm of the Kingdom of Poland|Sejm]] and national assembly. Both the Austrian ambassadors and the papal legates testify to the care with which he controlled his nation. According to diplomats, everything went as Sigismund wished and he seemed to know everything in advance. He managed to obtain more funds from the Sejm than his father ever could, and at one of the parliament sittings he won the hearts of the assembled envoys by unexpectedly appearing in a simple grey coat of a [[Mazovia]]n lord. Like his father, a pro-Austrian by conviction, he contrived even in this respect to carry with him the nation, often distrustful of the [[Germans]]. He also avoided serious complications and skirmishes with the powerful Turks.

===Livonia===
{{main|Old Livonia|Duchy of Livonia|Livonian War}}
[[File:Steven van Herwijck, Sigismund II Augustus, 1520-1572, King of Poland 1548 (obverse), c. 1562, NGA 45436.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Medal obverse featuring Sigismund from 1562, [[National Gallery of Art]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]]]
During Sigismund Augustus' reign, Livonia was in political turmoil. His father, Sigismund I, permitted [[Albert, Duke of Prussia|Albert of Prussia]] to introduce the Protestant [[Reformation]] and secularize the southern part of the [[Teutonic Order State]]. Albert then established Europe's first Protestant state in the [[Duchy of Prussia]] in 1525, but under [[Treaty of Cracow|Polish suzerainty]]. However, his efforts to introduce Protestantism to the [[Livonian Brothers of the Sword]] in the northernmost part of the region was met with fierce resistance and divided the [[Livonian Confederation]]. When Albert's brother [[Wilhelm von Brandenburg|Wilhelm]] and [[Archbishopric of Riga|Archbishop of Riga]] attempted to implement a [[Church Order (Lutheran)|Lutheran church order]] in his [[diocese]], the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] estates rebelled and arrested both Wilhelm and his [[Coadjutor bishop|bishop coadjutor]], [[Christopher, Duke of Mecklenburg]].

As Prussia was a tributary state of the Polish Crown, Sigismund Augustus, a Catholic, was forced to intervene in favour of Protestant Albert and his brother Wilhelm. In July 1557 the Polish forces left for Livonia. The armed intervention proved to be successful; the Catholic Livonians surrendered and signed the [[Treaty of Pozvol]] on 14 September 1557. The agreement placed most Livonian territories under Polish protection and ''[[de facto]]'' became part of Poland. [[Gotthard Kettler]], the last Master of the Order, was granted the newly established [[Duchy of Courland and Semigallia]]. Wilhelm was restored to his former position as archbishop on Sigismund's demand, with the Lutheran church order being enacted.

The incorporation of Courland into the Polish sphere of influence created an alliance which threatened Russia's plans of expanding into the [[Baltic coast]]. Sigismund directed the alliance against [[Ivan the Terrible]] to protect lucrative trade routes in Livonia, thus creating a new valid ''[[casus belli]]'' against the [[Tsardom of Russia|Russian Tsardom]]. On 22 January 1558, Ivan invaded the Baltic states and started the [[Livonian War]], which lasted 25 years until 1583. Russia's eventual defeat in the war legally partitioned Livonia between Poland ([[Latvia]], southern [[Estonia]]) and [[Sweden]] (central-northern Estonia). The Polish sector became subsequently known as [[Duchy of Livonia|Polish Livonia]] or ''Inflanty''; it was settled with colonists from Poland proper resulting in systematic [[polonisation]] of these lands.

===Northern Seven Years' War===
[[File:Royal armoury Stockholm 1.jpg|thumb|Parade [[armour]] of King Sigismund Augustus, made in [[Nuremberg]] by [[Kunz Lochner]], 1550s. [[Livrustkammaren]] in [[Stockholm]].]]
When the [[Kalmar Union]] between Sweden and [[Denmark]] was disbanded in 1523 due to Swedish resentment of Danish tyranny, Baltic trade became threatened. The port city of [[Gdańsk]] (Danzig), Poland's wealthiest city, faced difficulties due to ongoing conflict on the sea and [[piracy]]. The capital, [[Kraków]], was also affected as the trade route from the Baltic ran through Gdańsk and along the [[Vistula]] river to the southern province of [[Lesser Poland]]. Gdańsk, which was privileged with its own army and government, resisted against Sigismund's order of sending privateers and creating the first Polish Admiralty in their city. Most of the deputies in the city council were merchants and tradesmen of German descent or [[Protestant]]s who were either politically leaning towards Sweden or fighting for the status of an independent '[[city state]]'. 11 Polish privateers sent by Sigismund were eventually executed, which greatly angered the king. Poland then joined Denmark against Sweden for Baltic domination.

The war ended as ''[[status quo ante bellum]]'' in 1570 with the [[Treaty of Stettin (1570)|Treaty of Stettin]], which was signed by Bishop [[Martin Kromer]] on behalf of Sigismund Augustus. However, the ineffective conflict did have its input in establishing Poland's first registered [[Navy of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth|naval fleet]] (Naval Commission) in 1568.

===Union of Lublin===
{{main|Polish-Lithuanian union|Union of Lublin|Polonisation}}
Sigismund's most striking legacy may have been the [[Union of Lublin]], which united Poland and Lithuania into one state, the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]], jointly with German-speaking [[Royal Prussia]] and Prussian cities. This achievement might well have been impossible without the monarch's personal approach to politics and ability to mediate.<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|inline=1 |last=Bain |first=Robert Nisbet  |author-link=Robert Nisbet Bain  |wstitle=Sigismund II. |volume=25 |page=68}}</ref>

At first, the treaty was perceived as a threat to Lithuanian sovereignty. Lithuanian [[magnates]] were afraid of losing their powers, since the proposed union would lower their rank and status to an equivalent with [[petty nobility]] rather than wealthier Polish aristocracy. On the other hand, the unification would provide a strong alliance against Russian (Muscovite) attack from the east. Lithuania was ravaged by the [[Muscovite-Lithuanian Wars]] which endured for over 150 years. During the [[Muscovite-Lithuanian Wars#Second war (1500–1503)|Second War]], Lithuania lost {{convert|210000|sqmi|km2}} of its territory to Russia, and the final defeat in the [[Livonian War]] would result in the country's incorporation into the [[Tsardom of Russia|Russian Tsardom]]. Furthermore, the [[Polish people|Poles]] were reluctant to aid Lithuania without a ''[[quid pro quo]]''. The most vocal opponent of the union was Sigismund's brother-in-law, [[Mikołaj "the Red" Radziwiłł]] ({{langx|lt|Radvila Rudasis}}), who viewed the agreement as "peaceful [[annexation]] of Lithuania" by Poland. He also resisted [[polonisation]] policies which forced ethnic [[Lithuanians]] to change their names and native language to [[Polish language|Polish]] or [[Latin language|Latin]].

As another war with Russia loomed, Sigismund Augustus pressed the members of parliament (Sejm) for the union, gradually gaining more followers due to his persuasive abilities and auspicious diplomacy. The potential union agreement would lead to the eviction of Lithuanian landowners who opposed the transition of territory from multi-ethnic Lithuania to Poland. Such terms were causing an outrage among the most renowned members of Lithuanian upper classes, but Sigismund was decisive and ruthless in this matter. Moreover, the [[Union of Krewo|personal union]] between the two countries created by the marriage of [[Jadwiga of Poland|Jadwiga]] with [[Jogaila]] in 1385 was not entirely constitutional. Being the last male member of the Jagiellons, childless Sigismund sought to preserve his dynasty's legacy. The newly proposed constitutional union would create one large Commonwealth state, with one [[elective monarchy in Poland|elected monarch]] who would simultaneously reign over both domains.

[[File:Sigismund II August of Poland during Lublin Union in 1569.png|thumb|[[Union of Lublin]]; Sigismund stands in the center holding a [[crucifix]] among nobles, envoys and the [[clergy]].]]

The initial Sejm negotiations on unity in January 1569, near the Polish city of [[Lublin]], were futile. The right of Poles to settle and own land in the Grand Duchy was questioned by Lithuanian envoys. Following Mikołaj Radziwiłł's departure from Lublin on 1 March 1569, Sigismund announced the incorporation of then-Lithuanian [[Podlachia]], [[Volhynia]], [[Podolia]] and [[Kiev]] provinces into Poland, with strong approval from the local [[Ukrainians|Ruthenian]] (Ukrainian) [[gentry]]. Those historic regions, which once belonged to the [[Kievan Rus']], were disputed between Lithuania and Russia. However, the Ruthenian nobles were eager to capitalise on the political or economic potential offered by the Polish sphere and agreed to the terms. Previously, the [[Kingdom of Ruthenia]] or "Ukraine" was abolished in 1349, after Poland and Lithuania split modern-day Ukraine in the aftermath of the [[Galicia–Volhynia Wars]]. Now, under the Union of Lublin, all Ukrainian and Ruthenian territories which were alien in culture, customs, religion and language to the Polish people would be annexed by Catholic Poland. Strong [[westernisation]] and polonisation would follow, including the clandestine suppression of the Ukrainian [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] by future King [[Sigismund III]]. Ruthenia remained under Polish rule until the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising|Cossack uprisings against Polish domination]] and the [[Partitions of Poland]], when Ukraine was annexed by the [[Russian Empire]].

The Lithuanians were compelled to return to the Sejm negotiations under [[Jan Hieronimowicz Chodkiewicz|Jan Hieronim Chodkiewicz]] and continue negotiations. The Polish nobility once again pressed for the full incorporation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into Poland, however, the Lithuanians disapproved. The parties eventually agreed on a federal state on 28 June 1569 and on 1 July 1569 the Union of Lublin was signed at [[Lublin Castle]], thus establishing the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Sigismund Augustus [[ratification|ratified]] the unification act on 4 July, and henceforth governed one of the largest and multicultural countries of 16th-century Europe.

===Religion===
{{main|Religion in Poland|Reformation in Poland}}
[[File:Anonymous Sigismund II Augustus in armor.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Sigismund Augustus in armour, 1550s, [[Alte Pinakothek]]]]
In comparison to his staunchly Catholic father, Sigismund Augustus paid little attention to the matters of faith and religion.<ref name="auto3">{{Cite web|url=http://muzhp.pl/pl/c/1764/geneza-upadek-i-dziedzictwo-reformacji-w-polsce-wywiad-z-prof-januszem-t-maciuszka|title=Geneza, upadek i dziedzictwo reformacji w Polsce – wywiad z prof. Januszem T. Maciuszką – Muzeum Historii Polski|website=muzhp.pl}}</ref> Having a large number of mistresses before, during and after being married, he was viewed by the clergy as an adulterer and [[libertine]]. Sigismund was also reasonably tolerant towards minorities and supported nobles of different faith and nationality to be part of the national assembly, the Sejm. He continued his father's policies, but was more accepting of the Protestant [[Reformation]] in Poland (only to the status of a minority religion).<ref name="auto3"/> Several [[magnates]] converted to [[Calvinism]] or Lutheranism during the Reformation started by [[Martin Luther]] and [[John Calvin]], most notably [[Stanisław Zamoyski]], [[Jan Zamoyski]], [[Mikołaj Rej]], [[Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski]], [[Johannes a Lasco]] (Jan Łaski) and [[Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ekumenizm.wiara.pl/doc/478720.10-najwybitniejszych-polskich-kalwinistow|title=10 najwybitniejszych polskich kalwinistów|website=ekumenizm.wiara.pl|date=27 January 2003 }}</ref>

Throughout the 16th century, Frycz Modrzewski advocated for renouncing [[Papacy|Rome]]'s authority and establishing a separate and independent Polish Church. His initiative was chiefly inspired by the creation of the [[Church of England|Anglican Church]] by [[Henry VIII]] in 1534. Sigismund Augustus was lenient towards the idea, particularly due to the sudden spread of Protestantism among courtiers, advisors, nobles and peasants. Calvinism became especially popular among the upper classes as it promoted [[Democracy|democratic]] freedoms and called for rebellion against [[absolute monarchy|absolutism]], which the privileged Polish nobility favoured. During the 1555 Sejm session in [[Piotrków Trybunalski|Piotrków]], the nobles intensively discussed the rights of priests in the newly proposed Polish Church and demanded the abolition of [[celibacy]].<ref name="auto2">{{Cite web|url=https://kurierhistoryczny.pl/artykul/krol-niczym-papiez-czyli-co-by-bylo-gdyby-powstal-polski-kosciol-narodowy,149|title=Król niczym papież, czyli co by było gdyby powstał Polski Kościół Narodowy|website=Kurier Historyczny}}</ref> Some Catholic bishops were supportive of the concepts and acknowledged the need for uniting Poland, Lithuania, Prussia and their [[vassals]] under a common religion. Sigismund agreed to the postulates, however, under the condition that [[Pope Paul IV]] will be in favour. Instead, Paul IV was enraged that such a proposition emerged for him to accept; he declined and refused to grant consent.<ref name="auto2"/> Facing potential [[excommunication]], the assembly were forced to abandon their plans. Nevertheless, Protestantism continued to flourish and spread. In 1565, the [[Polish Brethren]] came into existence as a [[Nontrinitarian]] [[sect]] of Calvinism.<ref name="auto4">{{Cite web|url=https://culture.pl/en/article/the-polish-brethren-the-first-reformed-peace-church-polands-first-banned-religion|title=The Polish Brethren: The First Reformed Peace Church & Poland's First Banned Religion|website=Culture.pl}}</ref>

One year after Sigismund's death the [[Warsaw Confederation]] was adopted as the first European act granting [[religious freedoms]]. Despite this, Protestantism in Poland ultimately declined during the fierce [[Counter-Reformation in Poland|Counter-Reformation]] measures under the despotic and arch-Catholic [[Sigismund III Vasa]], who ruled for nearly 45 years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infolotnicze.pl/2013/09/13/religijnosc-zygmunta-iii-wazy-a-polska-historiografia/2/|title=Religijność Zygmunta III Wazy a polska historiografia – Strona 2|website=infolotnicze.pl|date=23 June 2014 }}</ref> For instance, the Polish Brethren were banned, hunted down and its leaders executed.<ref name="auto4"/>