Editing Servius Tullius (section)

==Reign==
In Livy's account, Tarquinius Priscus had been elected king on the death of the previous king, [[Ancus Marcius]], whose two sons were too young to inherit or offer themselves for election. When Servius' popularity and his marriage to Tarquinius' daughter made him a likely successor to the throne, these sons attempted to seize the throne for themselves. They hired two assassins, who attacked and severely wounded Tarquinius.<ref>Livy, ''Ab urbe condita'', [[s:From the Founding of the City/Book 1#40|1.40]]</ref> Tanaquil immediately ordered the palace to be shut, and publicly announced from a palace window that Tarquinius had appointed Servius as regent; meanwhile, Tarquinius died of his wounds. When his death became public knowledge, the [[Roman senate|senate]] elected Servius as king, and the sons of Ancus fled to exile in [[Suessa Pometia]].<ref>Livy, [[s:From the Founding of the City/Book 1#41|1.41]].</ref> Livy describes this as the first occasion that the people of Rome were not involved in the election of the king. In Plutarch, Servius reluctantly consented to the kingship at the death-bed insistence of Tanaquil.<ref>Plutarch, ''Moralia'', On the fortune of the Romans, 10, 64: available online (Loeb) at Thayer's website [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Fortuna_Romanorum*.html]: see also Ovid, Fasti, 6.627 ff; Livy, [[s:From the Founding of the City/Book|1#39|I.39]]; Pliny, Natural History, 36 & 70.27.204.</ref>

Early in his reign, Servius [[Roman-Etruscan Wars#War with Veii and the Etruscans, under Servius Tullius|warred]] against Veii and the Etruscans. He is said to have shown valour in the campaign, and to have routed a great army of the enemy. His success helped him to cement his position at Rome.<ref>Livy, [[s:From the Founding of the City/Book 1#42|1.42]]</ref>  According to the ''[[Fasti Triumphales]]'', Servius celebrated three [[Roman triumph|triumphs]] over the Etruscans, including on 25 November 571 BC and 25 May 567 BC (the date of the third triumph is not legible on the ''Fasti'').

===Servian reforms===
{{Main|Servian constitution}}
Most of the reforms credited to Servius extended voting rights to certain groups – in particular to Rome's citizen-commoners (known in the Republican era as [[plebs]]), minor landholders previously disqualified from voting by ancestry, status or ethnicity. The same reforms simultaneously defined the fiscal and military obligations of all Roman citizens. As a whole, the so-called Servian reforms probably represent a long-drawn, complex and piecemeal process of populist policy and reform, extending from Servius' predecessors, [[Ancus Marcius]] and Tarquinius Priscus, to his successor [[Tarquinius Superbus]], and into the Middle and Late Republic. Rome's military and territorial expansion and consequent changes in its population would have made franchise regulation and reform an ongoing necessity, and their wholesale attribution to Servius "cannot be taken at face value".<ref>Cornell, pp. 144–147, 173–175, 183 (military character of reforms, especially in census).</ref>

====Curiate reform and census====
Until the Servian reforms, the passing of laws and judgment was the prerogative of the ''[[comitia curiata]]'' (curiate assembly), made up from thirty [[curia]]e; Roman sources describe ten curiae for each of three aristocratic [[Roman tribe|tribes]] or clans, each supposedly based on one of Rome's central hills, and claiming [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patrician]] status by virtue of their descent from Rome's founding families. These tribes comprised approximately 200 ''[[gens|gentes]]'' (clans), each of which contributed one senator ("elder") to the Senate. The senate advised the king, devised laws in his name, and was held to represent the entire [[SPQR|''populus Romanus'' (Roman people)]]; but it could only debate and discuss. Its decisions had no force unless approved by the ''comitia curiata''. By the time of Servius, if not long before, the tribes of the ''comitia'' were a minority of the population, ruling a multitude who had no effective voice in their own government.<ref>Cornell, pp. 115–118.</ref>

Rome's far more populous citizen-commoners could participate in this assembly in limited fashion, and perhaps offer their opinions on decisions but only the ''comitia curiata'' could vote. A minority thus exercised power and control over the majority. Roman tradition held that Servius formed a [[comitia centuriata]] of commoners to displace the ''comitia curiata'' as Rome's central legislative body. This required his development of the first Roman [[census]], making Servius the first [[Roman censor]].<ref>Census derives from Latin ''censere'', "to judge" or "to estimate".</ref> For the purposes of the census, citizens assembled by tribe in the [[Campus Martius]] to register their social rank, household, property and income. This established an individual's tax obligations, his ability to muster arms for military service when required to do so, and his assignment to a particular voting bloc.

The institution of the census and the ''comitia centuriata'' are speculated as Servius' attempt to erode the civil and military power of the Roman aristocracy, and seek the direct support of his newly enfranchised citizenry in civil matters; if necessary, under arms.<ref>Cornell, pp. 194–197.</ref> The ''comitia curiata'' continued to function through the Regal and Republican eras, but the Servian reform had reduced its powers to those of a largely symbolic "upper house"; its noble members were expected to do no more than ratify decisions of the ''comitia centuriata''.<ref>Cornell, p. 25.</ref>

====Classes====
The census grouped Rome's male citizen population in classes, according to status, wealth and age. Each class was subdivided into groups called ''centuriae'' (centuries), nominally of 100 men (Latin ''centum'' = 100) but in practice of variable number,<ref>The Servian "centuries" are therefore held to mean "groups".</ref> further divided as ''seniores'' (men aged 46 – 60, of a suitable age to serve as "home guards" or city police) and ''iuniores'' (men aged 17 – 45, to serve as front–line troops when required). Adult male citizens were obliged, when called upon, to fulfill military service according to their means, which was supposedly assessed in archaic ''[[As (Roman coin)|asses]]''.<ref>The ''as'' of this era represented a particular weight of bronze – one pound, according to Cornell – much heavier than the later ''as''; its value cannot therefore be represented as a fraction or equivalent of later Roman coinage (''as'', ''[[sesterce]]'' or [[denarius]]). See Cornell, pp. 180–181.</ref>  A citizen's wealth and class would, therefore, have defined their position in the civil hierarchies, and up to a point, within the military; but despite its apparent military character, and its possible origins as the mustering of the citizenry–at–arms, the system would have primarily served to determine the voting qualifications and wealth of individual citizens for taxation purposes, and the weight of their vote – wars were occasional but taxation was a constant necessity<ref>Cornell, pp. 186–190, 194–196.</ref> – and the [[comitia centuriata]] met whenever required to do so, in peace or war. Though each century had voting rights, the wealthiest  had the most centuries, and voted first. Those beneath them were convened only in the event of deadlock or indecision; the lowest class was unlikely to vote at all.<ref>See Cornell, p. 179, who is citing Livy, [[s:From the Founding of the City/Book 1#43|1.43]], and Dionysius of Halicarnassus IV, 16–18. Descriptions of the armour and arms to be supplied by members of each class are almost certainly learned, speculative introjections by Livy and Dionysius.</ref>

The Roman army's ''centuria'' system and its order of battle are thought to be based on the civilian classifications established by the census. The military selection process picked men from civilian ''centuriae'' and slipped them into military ones. Their function depended on their age, experience, and the equipment they could afford. The wealthiest class of ''iuniores'' (aged 17–45) were armed as [[hoplite]]s, heavy infantry with [[helmet]], [[greave]]s, [[breastplate]], shields (''[[clipeus]]''), and spears (''[[hasta (spear)|hastae]]''). Each battle line in the [[phalanx formation]] was composed of a single class.<ref>Lendon, J.E., ''Soldiers & Ghosts: A History of Battle in Classical Antiquity'', Yale University Press (2005), {{ISBN|978-0-300-11979-4}}, p. 182: The Greek-style phalanx was known to the Romans of the Regal era, and their front-line fighting men were armed identically to early Greek hoplites.</ref> Military specialists, such as trumpeters, were chosen from the 5th class. The highest officers were of aristocratic origin until the early Republic, when the first [[plebeian tribune]]s were elected by the plebeians from their own number. Cornell suggests that this centuriate system made the equites, who "consisted mainly, if not exclusively, of patricians" but voted after infantry of the first class, subordinate to the relatively low-status infantry.<ref>Cornell, p. 196.</ref>

===Tribal and boundary expansions===
The Servian reforms increased the number of tribes and expanded the city, which was protected by a new rampart, moat and wall. The enclosed area was divided into four administrative ''regiones'' (regions, or quarters); the Suburana, Esquilana, Collina and Palatina. Servius himself is said to have taken a new residence, on the Esquiline.<ref>Livy, Ab urbe condita, [[s:From the Founding of the City/Book 1#44|1.44]]. The named regions, in this sequence (I–IV), are in Varro, ''Lingua Latina'', 5. 45.</ref> The situation beyond the walls is unclear,<ref>Similar tribal areas, perhaps known as ''pagi'', may have extended into the surrounding Roman territories (''ager Romanus''), and some of their inhabitants would have qualified for citizenship under the Servian class reforms. Discussion in Cornell, pp. 176–179.</ref> but thereafter, membership of a Roman voting-tribe would have depended on residence rather than kinship, ancestry and inheritance. This would have brought significant numbers of urban and rural ''[[plebs]]'' into active political life; and a significant number of these would have been allocated to centuries of the first class, and therefore likely to vote.<ref>Cornell, pp. 173.</ref> The city of Rome's division into "quarters" remained in use until 7&nbsp;BC, when [[Augustus]] divided the city into [[14 regions of Augustan Rome|14 new ''regiones'']]. In modern Rome, an ancient [[Servian Wall|portion of surviving wall]] is attributed to Servius, the remainder supposedly being rebuilt after the [[Battle of the Allia|sack of Rome]] in 390/387&nbsp;BC by the Gauls.{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}}

===Economy===
Some Roman historians believed Servius Tullius responsible for Rome's earliest true, minted [[coin]]age, replacing an earlier and less convenient currency of raw bullion. This is unlikely, though he may have introduced the official stamping of raw currency.<ref>Servius is credited as inventor of minted bronze coinage by [[Pliny the Elder]], on the authority of Timaeus (''circa'' 360 BC): [[Varro]] credits Servius with the first issues of minted silver coinage. See discussion in Crawford, Michael H., "The Early Roman Economy, 753–280 BC", ''Publications de l'École française de Rome'', 1976,  Volume 27  Numéro 1  pp. 197–207:[http://www.persee.fr/doc/efr_0000-0000_1976_ant_27_1_1984]</ref> Money played a minimal role in the Roman economy, which was almost entirely agrarian at this time. Debt and [[Nexum|debt bondage]], however, were probably rife. The form of such debts would have had little resemblance to those of cash-debtors, compelled to pay interest to money-lenders on an advance of capital. Rather, wealthy landowners would make an "advance loan" of seed, foodstuffs or other essentials to tenants, clients and smallholders, in return for a promise of labour services or a substantial share of the crop. The terms of such "loans" compelled defaulters to sell themselves, or their dependants, to their creditor; or, if smallholders, to surrender their farm. Wealthy aristocratic landholders thus acquired additional farms and service for very little outlay.<ref>See discussion in Cornell, pp. 281–283</ref> Dionysius claims that Servius paid such debts "from his own purse", and forbade voluntary and compulsory debt bondage.<ref>[[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]], ''Roman Antiquities'' 4.9</ref> In reality, these practices persisted well into the Republican era. Livy describes the distribution of land grants to poor and landless citizens by Servius and others as the political pursuit of popular support from citizens of little merit or worth.<ref>Livy, 2.46, 3.39.9. See also [[Cicero]]'s assertion that Rome should be governed not by the general populace but by the"best men" (''[[optimates]]''): see Cicero, ''Pro Sestio'', 96.</ref>

===Religion===
Servius is credited with the construction of [[Temple of Diana (Rome)|Diana's temple]] on the [[Aventine Hill]], to mark the foundation of the so-called [[Latin League]];<ref>Beard, North, Price, ''Religions of Rome: Vol. 1, a History'', 1998, p. 3.</ref> His servile birth-mythos, his populist leanings and his reorganisation of the ''vici'' appear to justify the Roman belief that he founded or reformed the [[Compitalia]] festivals (held to celebrate the [[Lares]] that watched over each local community), or allowed for the first time their attendance and service by non-citizens and slaves.<ref>Lott, John. B., ''The Neighborhoods of Augustan Rome,'' Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2004. p. 31 ff.</ref> His personal reputation and achievements may have led to his historical association with temples and shrines to Fortuna; some sources suggest that the two were connected during Servius' lifetime, via some form of "sacred marriage". Plutarch explicitly identifies the ''Porta Fenestella'' ("window gate") of the Royal palace as the window from which Tanaquil announced Servius' regency to the people; the goddess Fortuna was said to have passed through the same window, to become Servius' consort.<ref>Cornell, pp. 146–148. cf. images of a "goddess at the window" and forms of ruler-marriage to a tutelary deity. Plutarch credits Servius with the appreciative foundation of a temple Fortuna Primigenia, and one to Fortuna Obsequens – and "the greater part" of her titles and honours: due gratitude from one who "through good fortune, had been promoted from the family of a captive enemy to the kingship"–see Plutarch, ''Moralia,'' On the fortune of the Romans, 10.58–63. English version (Loeb) at Thayer's website [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Fortuna_Romanorum*.html#ref6459]. For possible locations of the ''Porta Fenestella'' and the associated ''Nova Via'', see also [[T. P. Wiseman]], "Where Was the Nova Via?", ''Papers of the British School at Rome'', 72, 2004, pp. 167–183.</ref>

===Assassination===

In Livy's history, Servius Tullius had two daughters, Tullia the Elder and Tullia the Younger. He arranged their marriage to the two sons of his predecessor, [[Tarquinius Superbus|Lucius Tarquinius]] and [[Arruns Tarquinius (brother of Tarquin the Proud)|Arruns Tarquinius]]. The younger Tullia and Lucius procured the murders of their respective siblings, married, and conspired to remove Servius Tullius. Tullia Minor encouraged Lucius Tarquinius to secretly persuade or bribe senators, and Tarquinius went to the [[Curia Hostilia|senate-house]] with a group of armed men. Then he summoned the [[Roman Senate|senators]] and gave a speech criticising Servius: for being a slave born of a slave; for failing to be elected by the Senate and the people during an [[interregnum]], as had been the tradition for the election of kings of Rome; for being gifted the throne by a woman; for favouring the lower classes of Rome over the wealthy; for taking the land of the upper classes for distribution to the poor; and for instituting the census, which exposed the wealthy upper classes to popular envy.<ref>Livy, Ab urbe condita, [[s:From the Founding of the City/Book 1#42|1.42]], [[s:From the Founding of the City/Book 1#46|1.46]], [[s:From the Founding of the City/Book 1#47|1.47]].</ref>

When Servius Tullius arrived at the senate-house to defend his position, Tarquinius threw him down the steps and Servius was murdered in the street by Tarquin's men. Soon after, Tullia drove her chariot over her father's body. For Livy, Tarquinius' impious refusal to permit his father-in-law's burial earned him the sobriquet ''Superbus'' (“arrogant” or “proud”),<ref>Livy, ''Ab urbe condita'', [[s:From the Founding of the City/Book 1#49|1.49]]</ref> and Servius' death is a "tragic crime" (''tragicum scelus''), a dark episode in Rome's history and just cause for the abolition of the monarchy. Servius thus becomes the last of Rome's benevolent kings; the place of this outrage – which Livy seems to suggest as a crossroads – is known thereafter as ''Vicus Sceleratus'' (street of shame, infamy or crime).<ref>The Compital shrines of the ''Lares'' of the ''vici'' (s.''vicus'') or political wards were sited at crossroads; cf their popular association with Servius Tullius.</ref> His murder is [[parricide]], the worst of all crimes. This morally justifies Tarquin's eventual expulsion and the abolition of Rome's aberrant, "un-Roman" monarchy. Livy's Republic is partly founded on the achievements and death of Rome's last benevolent king.<ref>Feldherr, Andrew. ''Spectacle and Society in Livy's History''. Berkeley:  University of California Press, c1998 (online) [http://www.escholarship.org/editions/view?docId=ft1g500491;chunk.id=d0e11183;doc.view=print]</ref>