Editing Septimius Severus (section)

== Emperor ==
[[File: 20130518 Septimius Severus Archeological Museum Komotini Thrace Greece.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Golden Bust of Septimius Severus]] found in 1965 at [[Didymoteicho]] in Northern [[Greece]], now at the [[Archaeological Museum of Komotini]].]]

=== War against Parthia ===
{{further|Roman–Parthian Wars}}
[[File:Severus210AD.png|thumb|right|upright=1.2|The Roman Empire in 210 after the conquests of Severus, showing Roman territory (purple) and Roman dependencies (light purple)]]
[[File:Aureus of Septimius Severus, AD 193.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Aureus]] minted in 193 by Severus to celebrate [[Legio XIV Gemina|Legio XIV ''Gemina Martia Victrix'']], the legion that proclaimed him emperor. Inscription: IMP. CAE. L. SEP. SEV. PERT[INAX] AVG. / LEG. XIIII CEM. M. V. – TR. P., CO[N]S.]]

In early 197 Severus left Rome and sailed to the east. He embarked at [[Brundisium]] and probably landed at the port of [[History of Yumurtalık|Aegeae]] in [[Cilicia]],<ref>Hasebroek (1921), p.&nbsp;111.</ref> travelling on to [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]] by land. He immediately gathered his army and crossed the [[Euphrates]].<ref>"Life of Septimius Severus" in ''Historia Augusta'', 16.1.</ref> [[Abgar IX]], titular King of [[Osroene]] but essentially only the ruler of [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]] since the annexation of his kingdom as a Roman province,<ref>Birley (1999), p.&nbsp;115.</ref> handed over his children as hostages and assisted Severus' expedition by providing archers.<ref>Birley (1999), p.&nbsp;129.</ref> King [[Khosrov I of Armenia]] also sent hostages, money and gifts.<ref>Hovannisian, ''The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century'', p. 71</ref>

Severus travelled on to [[Nisibis]], which his general [[Julius Laetus]] had prevented from falling into [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] hands. Afterwards Severus returned to Syria to plan a more ambitious campaign.<ref>''Prosopographia Imperii Romani'' L 69.</ref> The following year he led another, more successful campaign against the [[Parthian Empire]], reportedly in retaliation for the support it had given to [[Pescennius Niger]]. His legions sacked the Parthian royal city of [[Battle of Ctesiphon (198)|Ctesiphon]] and he annexed the northern half of [[Mesopotamia]] to the empire;<ref name="Birley 1999, p. 153">Birley (1999), p.&nbsp;153.</ref><ref>Birley (1999), p.&nbsp;130.</ref> Severus took the title ''{{lang|la| Parthicus Maximus}}'', following the example of [[Trajan]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | article = Ctesiphon | last = Kröger | first = Jens | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ctesiphon | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 4 | pages = 446–448 | year = 1993 | title = Archived copy | access-date = 9 April 2025 | archive-date = 21 April 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200421125348/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ctesiphon | url-status = live }}</ref> However, he was unable to capture the fortress of [[Hatra]], even after two lengthy sieges—just like Trajan, who had tried nearly a century before. During his time in the east, though, Severus also expanded the ''[[Limes Arabicus]]'', building new fortifications in the [[Arabian Desert]] from [[Qasr Azraq|Basie]] to [[Dumat Al-Jandal|Dumatha]].<ref name="Birley 1999, p. 134">
Birley (1999), p.&nbsp;134.
</ref>

===Relations with the Senate and People===
Severus' relations with the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] were never good. He was unpopular with them from the outset, having seized power with the help of the military, and he returned the sentiment. Severus ordered the execution of a large number of Senators on charges of corruption or [[Conspiracy (political)|conspiracy]] against him and replaced them with his favourites. Although his actions turned Rome more into a military dictatorship, he was popular with the citizens of Rome, having stamped out the rampant corruption of Commodus' reign. When he returned from his victory over the Parthians, he erected the [[Arch of Septimius Severus]] in Rome.<ref>Asante, Molefi Kete and Shanza Ismail, "Rediscovering the 'Lost' Roman Caesar: Septimius Severus the African and Eurocentric Historiography." ''[[Journal of Black Studies]]'' 40, no. 4 (March 2010): 606–618</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal|last1=Perkins|first1=J. B. Ward|title=The Arch of Septimius Severus at Lepcis Magna|journal=Archaeology|date=December 1951|volume= 4|issue= 4|pages=226–231}}</ref>

According to Cassius Dio,<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', Book 76, Sections 14 and 15.</ref> however, after 197 Severus fell heavily under the influence of his Praetorian prefect, [[Gaius Fulvius Plautianus]], who came to have almost total control of the imperial administration. At the same time, a bloody power crisis erupted between Plautianus and [[Julia Domna]], Severus' influential and powerful wife, which had a relatively destructive effect on the centre of power. Plautianus' daughter [[Fulvia Plautilla]] was married to Severus' son Caracalla. Plautianus' excessive power came to an end in 204, when he was denounced by the emperor's dying brother. In January 205 Julia Domna and [[Caracalla]] accused Plautianus of plotting to kill him and Severus. The powerful prefect was executed while he was trying to defend his case in front of the two emperors.<ref>Birley (1999), pp. 161–162.</ref> One of the two following ''praefecti'' was the famous jurist [[Papinian]]. Executions of senators did not stop: Cassius Dio records that many of them were put to death, some after being formally tried. After the assassination of Gaius Fulvius Plautianus in the rest of his reign, he relied more on the advice of his clever and educated wife, [[Julia Domna]], in the administration of the empire.<ref>Birley (1999), p. 165.</ref>

===Military reforms===
[[File:Bronze head of Septimius Severus, from Asia Minor, c. 195-211 AD, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen (13648215765).jpg|thumb|Bronze head of Septimius Severus, from Asia Minor, c. 195–211 AD, [[Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek]], Copenhagen. Inscription: IMP. CAE. L. SEP. SEV. PERT. AVG. / LEG. XIIII, CEM M V – TRP COS.]]

Upon his arrival at Rome in 193, Severus discharged the [[Praetorian Guard]],<ref name=Dio75/> which had murdered Pertinax and had then auctioned the Roman Empire to Didius Julianus. Its members were stripped of their ceremonial armour and forbidden to come within {{convert|160|km|0}} of the city on pain of death.<ref>Birley (1999), p.&nbsp;103.</ref> Severus replaced the old guard with 10 new cohorts recruited from veterans of his Danubian legions.<ref name=Adkins>Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins, Both Professional ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=zGY1Sqjwf8kC&dq=septimius%20severus%20praetorian%20guard&pg=PA68 Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome]'', p. 68</ref>

Around 197 he increased the number of legions from 30 to 33, with the introduction of the three new legions: I, II and III ''Parthica''.<ref>George Ronald Watson, [https://books.google.com/books?id=PSEnmtuOh6K0C&dq=septimius%20severus%20number%20of%20legions&pg=PA23 The Roman Soldier]{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, p. 23</ref> He garrisoned [[Legio II Parthica]] at [[Albano Laziale|Albanum]], only {{convert|20|km}} from Rome.<ref name=Adkins/> He gave his soldiers a [[donativum|donative]] of a thousand ''[[sestertius|sesterces]]'' (250 ''[[denarii]]'') each,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/miscellanea/numismatics/severus.html|title=Septimius Severus: Legionary Denarius|website=penelope.uchicago.edu|access-date=24 December 2015|archive-date=25 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240325040706/http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/miscellanea/numismatics/severus.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and raised the annual wage for a soldier in the legions from 300 to 400 ''denarii''.<ref>Kenneth W. Harl, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=5yPDL0EykeAC&dq=septimius%20severus%20legion%20pay&pg=PA216 Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700, Part 700]'', p. 216</ref>

Severus was the first Roman emperor to station some of the imperial army in Italy. He realized that Rome needed a military central reserve with the capability to be sent anywhere.<ref>Michael Grant (1978); ''History of Rome''; p. 358; Charles Scribner's Sons; NY {{ISBN?}}</ref>

=== Persecution of Christians ===
At the beginning of Severus' reign, [[Trajan]]'s policy toward the Christians was still in force. That is, Christians were only to be punished if they refused to worship the emperor and the gods, but they were not to be sought out.{{sfn|González|2010|p=97}} Therefore, persecution was inconsistent, local and sporadic. Faced with internal dissidence and external threats, Severus felt the need to promote religious harmony by promoting [[syncretism]].{{sfn|González|2010|pp=97–98}} He possibly issued an edict<ref name=HA>''[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Septimius_Severus*.html Historia Augusta]'', Septimius Severus, 17.1</ref> that punished conversion to Judaism and Christianity.{{sfn|Tabbernee|2007|pp=182–183}}

A number of persecutions of Christians occurred in the Roman Empire during his reign and were traditionally attributed to Severus by the early Christian community.{{sfn|Tabbernee|2007|p=182}}  A decree by Severus against the Christians is mentioned in the ''[[Historia Augusta]]'',<ref name=HA/> an unreliable mix of fact and fiction.{{sfn|Tabbernee|2007|p=184}} Early church historian [[Eusebius]] described Severus as a persecutor.<ref>[[Eusebius]], ''Historia Ecclesiastica'', VI.1.1</ref> However, the [[Christian apologist]] [[Tertullian]] stated that Severus was well disposed towards Christians,<ref>{{in lang|la}} [[Tertullian]], ''[http://www.tertullian.org/latin/ad_scapulam.htm Ad Scapulam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151025174903/http://www.tertullian.org/latin/ad_scapulam.htm |date=25 October 2015 }}'', IV.5–6</ref> employed a Christian as his personal physician and had personally intervened to save several high-born Christians known to him from the mob.{{sfn|Tabbernee|2007|p=184}} Some scholars think that Eusebius' description of Severus as a persecutor likely derives merely from the fact that numerous persecutions occurred during his reign, including those known in the ''[[Roman Martyrology]]'' as the martyrs of [[Madauros]], [[Charalambos]] and [[Perpetua and Felicity]] in [[Africa (Roman province)|Roman-ruled Africa]]. These were probably the result of local persecutions rather than empire-wide actions or decrees by Severus.{{sfn|Tabbernee|2007|p=185}}

=== Military activity in Africa ===
In late 202 Severus launched a campaign in the province of Africa. The ''[[legatus legionis]]'' or commander of [[Legio III Augusta]], [[Quintus Anicius Faustus]], had been fighting against the [[Garamantes]] along the ''[[Limes Tripolitanus]]'' for five years. He captured several settlements such as [[Ghadames|Cydamus]], Gholaia, Garbia and their capital [[Germa|Garama]]—over {{convert|600|km}} south of [[Leptis Magna]].<ref>Birley (1999), p. 153.</ref> The province of [[Numidia]] was also enlarged: the empire annexed the settlements of [[Biskra|Vescera]], [[Messaad|Castellum Dimmidi]], [[M'Lili|Gemellae]], [[Thabudeos]] and [[Tubunae|Thubunae]]<!-- Zabi probably simply means "village" in local dialect -->.<ref>Birley (1999), p. 147.</ref> By 203 the entire southern frontier of Roman Africa had been dramatically expanded and re-fortified. Desert nomads could no longer safely raid the region's interior and escape back into the [[Sahara]].<ref name="Birley 1999, p. 153"/>

[[File:Septimius Severus' African conquests1.jpg|thumb|center|450px|The expansion of the African frontier during the reign of Severus (medium tan). Severus even briefly held a military presence in Garama in 203 (light tan).]]

=== Britain ===
{{further|Roman invasion of Caledonia (208–210)}}
[[File:Kushan ring with Septimus Severus and Julia Domna.jpg|thumb|[[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] ring with portraits of Septimius Severus and [[Julia Domna]], a testimony to [[Indo-Roman relations]] of the period]]

In 208 Severus travelled to Britain with the intention of conquering [[Caledonia]]. Modern archaeological discoveries illuminate the scope and direction of his northern campaign.<ref name="Birley 1999 180">Birley, (1999) p. 180.</ref> Severus probably arrived in Britain with an army of over 40,000, considering some of the camps constructed during his campaign could house this number.<ref>W.S. Hanson [http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/arch-352-1/dissemination/pdf/vol_109/109_140_150.pdf "Roman campaigns north of the Forth-Clyde isthmus: the evidence of the temporary camps"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107022132/http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/arch-352-1/dissemination/pdf/vol_109/109_140_150.pdf |date=7 November 2012 }}</ref>

He strengthened [[Hadrian's Wall]] and reconquered the [[Southern Uplands]] up to the [[Antonine Wall]], which was also enhanced. Supported and supplied by a strong naval force,<ref name="Scotland"/> Severus then thrust north with his army across the wall into Caledonian territory. Retracing the steps of [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola|Agricola]] of over a century before, Severus rebuilt and garrisoned many abandoned Roman forts along the east coast, such as [[Carpow Roman Fort|Carpow]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://canmore.org.uk/site/30081/carpow|title=Carpow {{!}} Canmore|website=canmore.org.uk|language=en|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516015140/https://canmore.org.uk/site/30081/carpow|archive-date=16 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Cassius Dio]]'s account of the invasion reads:

{{blockquote|Severus, accordingly, desiring to subjugate the whole of it, invaded Caledonia. But as he advanced through the country he experienced countless hardships in cutting down the forests, levelling the heights, filling up the swamps, and bridging the rivers; but he fought no battle and beheld no enemy in battle array. The enemy purposely put sheep and cattle in front of the soldiers for them to seize, in order that they might be lured on still further until they were worn out; for in fact, the water caused great suffering to the Romans, and when they became scattered, they would be attacked. Then, unable to walk, they would be slain by their own men, in order to avoid capture, so that a full fifty thousand died. But Severus did not desist until he approached the extremity of the island. Here he observed most accurately the variation of the sun's motion and the length of the days and the nights in summer and winter, respectively. Having thus been conveyed through practically the whole of the hostile country (for he actually was conveyed in a covered litter most of the way, on account of his infirmity), he returned to the friendly portion, after he had forced the Britons to come to terms, on the condition that they should abandon a large part of their territory.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/77*.html |title=Cassius Dio – Epitome of Book 77 |publisher=Penelope.uchicago.edu |access-date=2012-11-07}}</ref>}}

By 210 Severus' campaigning had made significant gains, despite Caledonian guerrilla tactics and purportedly heavy Roman casualties.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Keys |first1=David |title=Ancient Roman 'hand of god' discovered near Hadrian's Wall sheds light on biggest combat operation ever in UK |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/hand-of-god-ancient-roman-hadrians-wall-sculpture-bronze-found-latest-a8419131.html |access-date=6 July 2018 |agency=Independent |date=27 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180707015802/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/hand-of-god-ancient-roman-hadrians-wall-sculpture-bronze-found-latest-a8419131.html |archive-date=7 July 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Caledonians sued for peace, which Severus granted on condition they relinquish control of the [[Central Lowlands]] (of what is now Scotland)<ref name="Birley 1999 180"/><ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', Epitome of Book LXXVII.13.</ref> as evidenced by the extensive Severan-era fortifications there.<ref>Birley (1999), pp. 180–82.</ref> The Caledonians, short on supplies and feeling that their position was desperate, revolted later that year with the [[Maeatae]].<ref>Birley (1999), p. 186.</ref> Severus prepared for another protracted campaign within Caledonia. He was now intent on exterminating the Caledonians, telling his soldiers: "Let no-one escape sheer destruction, no-one our hands, not even the babe in the womb of the mother, if it be male; let it nevertheless not escape sheer destruction."<ref name="Scotland">{{cite news|last1=Smith|first1=Laura|title=The Honest Truth: How the Romans came close but ultimately failed to conquer Scotland under Septimius Severus|url=https://www.sundaypost.com/fp/the-honest-truth-how-the-romans-came-close-but-ultimately-failed-to-conquer-scotland-under-septimius-severus/|access-date=21 May 2018|publisher=The Sunday Post|date=16 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180521164647/https://www.sundaypost.com/fp/the-honest-truth-how-the-romans-came-close-but-ultimately-failed-to-conquer-scotland-under-septimius-severus/|archive-date=21 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Dio Cassius (Xiphilinus) 'Romaika' Epitome of Book LXXVI Chapter 15.</ref>