Editing Sephardic Jews (section)

== History ==
{{main|History of the Jews in Spain|History of the Jews in Portugal}}

=== Early history ===
The earliest significant Jewish presence in the Iberian Peninsula is typically traced back to the [[Hispania|Roman period]], during the first centuries CE. Evidence includes an amphora discovered in [[Ibiza]], stamped with two Hebrew letters in relief, indicating possible trade between [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]] and the [[Balearic Islands|Balearics]] in the first century. Additionally, the [[Epistle to the Romans]] records [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]]'s intent to visit Spain,<ref>Epistle to the Romans, 15.28</ref> hinting at a Jewish community in the region during the mid-first century CE.{{sfn|Rutgers|Bradbury|2006|pp=|p=508}} Josephus writes that Herod Antipas was deposed and exiled to Spain, possibly to [[Lugdunum Convenarum]], in 39 CE.{{sfn|Gabba|1999|pp=|p=132}} 

Archaeological evidence of a Jewish presence in Spain prior to the third century CE is limited. However, from the third to sixth centuries, inscriptions confirm the existence of Jewish communities, particularly in the more Romanized regions of the south and east, such as [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], [[Mérida, Spain|Mérida]], [[Seville]], and [[Tarragona]]. Additionally, these inscriptions suggest a Jewish presence in other locations, including [[Elche]], [[Tortosa]], [[Adra, Spain|Adra]], and the Balearic Islands.{{sfn|Rutgers|Bradbury|2006|pp=|p=509}} Rabbinic literature from the [[Amoraim|Amoraic era]] references Spain as a distant land with a Jewish presence.{{sfn|Rutgers|Bradbury|2006|pp=|p=509}} For example, a tradition passed down by [[Rabbi Berekhiah|Rabbi Berekiah]] and [[Shimon bar Yochai|Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai]], quoting second-century ''[[Tannaim|tanna]]'' [[Rabbi Meir]], states: "Do not fear, O Israel, for I help you from remote lands, and your seed from the land of their captivity, from [[Gaul]], from Spain, and from their neighbors."{{sfn|Rutgers|Bradbury|2006|pp=|p=509}}

Medieval legends often traced the arrival of Jews in Spain to the [[First Temple period]], with some associating the biblical [[Tarshish]] with [[Tartessos|Tartessus]] and suggesting Jewish traders were active in Spain during the Phoenician and [[Carthaginian Iberia|Carthaginian]] eras.{{sfn|Rutgers|Bradbury|2006|pp=|p=508}} One such legend from the 16th century claimed that a funeral inscription in [[Murviedro]] belonged to [[Adoniram]], a commander of King [[Solomon]], who had supposedly died in Spain while collecting tribute.{{sfn|Rutgers|Bradbury|2006|pp=|p=508}} Another legend spoke of a letter allegedly sent by the Jews of Toledo to Judaea in 30 CE, asking to prevent the crucifixion of Jesus. These legends aimed to establish that Jews had settled in Spain well before the Roman period and to absolve them of any responsibility for the death of Jesus, a [[Jewish deicide|charge often leveled at them]] in later centuries.{{sfn|Rutgers|Bradbury|2006|pp=|p=508}}

Rabbi and scholar [[Abraham ibn Daud]] wrote in 1161: "A tradition exists with the [Jewish] community of Granada that they are from the inhabitants of Jerusalem, of the descendants of [[Tribe of Judah|Judah]] and [[Tribe of Benjamin|Benjamin]], rather than from the villages, the towns in the outlying districts [of Israel]."<ref>'' Seder Hakabbalah Laharavad'', Jerusalem 1971, p. 51 (printed in the edition which includes the books, ''Seder Olam Rabbah'' and ''Seder Olam Zuta'') (Hebrew)</ref> Elsewhere, he writes about his maternal grandfather's family and how they came to Spain after Jerusalem's destruction in 70 CE: "When [[Titus]] [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|prevailed over Jerusalem]], his officer who was appointed over [[Hispania]] appeased him, requesting that he send to him captives made-up of the nobles of Jerusalem, and so he sent a few of them to him, and there were amongst them those who made curtains and who were knowledgeable in the work of silk, and [one] whose name was Baruch, and they remained in [[Mérida, Spain|Mérida]]."<ref>''Seder Hakabbalah Laharavad'', Jerusalem 1971, pp. 43–44 (printed in the edition which includes the books, ''Seder Olam Rabbah'' and ''Seder Olam Zuta'') (Hebrew).</ref>

Around 300 CE, the [[Synod of Elvira]], an ecclesiastical council convened in southern Spain, and enacted several decrees to restrict interactions between Christians and Jews.{{sfn|Rutgers|Bradbury|2006|pp=509-511}} Among the measures were prohibitions on intermarriage between Jews and Christians, communal dining, and the participation of Jews in blessing fields.{{sfn|Rutgers|Bradbury|2006|pp=509-511}} Despite these efforts, aimed to diminish Jewish influence on Christian communities, evidence indicates that everyday social relations between Jews and Christians continued to be prevalent in various locales.{{sfn|Rutgers|Bradbury|2006|pp=509-511}}

=== Under Visigothic rule ===
By the mid-5th century, Spain came under the control of the [[Visigothic Kingdom]], following a period of significant instability caused by Barbarian invasions that led to the collapse of the [[Western Roman Empire]].{{sfn|Rutgers|Bradbury|2006|pp=511–512}} Initially, the Christian [[Visigoths]] practiced [[Arianism]] and, while they generally did not engage in the persecution of Jews, they did not extend particular favor to them either.{{sfn|Rutgers|Bradbury|2006|pp=511–512}} It was not until the reign of [[Alaric II]] (484–507) that a Visigothic king concerned himself with the Jews, as evidenced by the publication of the [[Breviary of Alaric]] in 506, which incorporated Roman legal precedents into Visigothic law.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}

The situation for Jews in Spain shifted dramatically after the conversion of the Visigothic monarchs to [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]] under King [[Reccared I|Reccared]] in 587.{{sfn|Rutgers|Bradbury|2006|pp=511–512}} As the Visigoths sought to unify the realm under their new religion, their policies towards Jews evolved from initial marginalization to increasingly aggressive measures aimed at their complete eradication from the kingdom.{{sfn|Rutgers|Bradbury|2006|pp=511–512}} Under successive Visigothic kings and under [[ecclesiastical]] authority, many orders of expulsion, forced conversion, isolation, enslavement, execution, and other punitive measures were made. By 612–621, the situation for Jews became intolerable and many left Spain for nearby northern Africa. In 711, thousands of Jews from North Africa accompanied the Muslims who invaded Spain, subsuming Catholic Spain and turning much of it into an Arab state, Al-Andalus.<ref>N. H. Finkelstein, p.&nbsp;13, 14.{{full citation needed|date=July 2016}}</ref>

=== Jews in Muslim Iberia ===
{{Main|Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain}}
{{see also|Al-Andalus}}
[[File:Al-andalus_229.png|thumb| 13th-century depiction of a Jew and Muslim playing chess in [[Al-Andalus]]]]In 711 CE, Muslim forces crossed the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] from North Africa and launched a [[Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula|successful military campaign]] in the Iberian Peninsula. This conquest resulted in the establishment of Muslim rule over much of the region, which they referred to as "[[Al-Andalus]]". The territory would remain under varying degrees of Muslim control for several centuries.{{sfn|Gerber|2021||pp=|p=164}} The Jewish community, having faced persecution under Visigothic rule, largely welcomed the new Muslim rulers who offered greater religious tolerance. Under Islamic rule, Jews, like Christians, were designated as ''[[dhimmi]]s''—protected but second-class monotheists—permitted to practice their religion with relative autonomy in exchange for paying a [[Jizya|special tax]].

To the Jews, the [[Moors]] were perceived as, and indeed were, a liberating force. Wherever they went, the Muslims were greeted by Jews eager to aid them in administering the country. In many conquered towns the garrison was left in the hands of the Jews before the Muslims proceeded further north.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} Both Muslim and Christian sources claim that Jews provided valuable aid to the Muslim conquerors. Once captured, the defense of Cordoba was left in the hands of Jews, and [[Granada]], [[Málaga|Malaga]], [[Seville]], and [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] were left to a mixed army of Jews and Moors. Although in some towns Jews may have been helpful to Muslim success, because of the small numbers they were of limited impact.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}

The [[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain|Golden Age of Sephardic Jewry]] flourished during this period, particularly in cities like Cordoba, Granada and Toledo. Jewish scholars, poets, philosophers and scientists thrived, contributing to the broader intellectual life of Al-Andalus. Jews in Muslim Spain played significant roles in trade, finance, diplomacy, and medicine. In spite of the restrictions placed upon the Jews as ''dhimmis'', life under Muslim rule was one of great opportunity and Jews flourished as they did not under the Christian Visigoths. Many Jews came to Iberia, seen as a land of tolerance and opportunity, from the Christian and Muslim worlds. Following initial Arab victories, and especially with the establishment of [[Umayyad]] rule by [[Abd-ar-rahman I|Abd al-Rahman I]] in 755, the native Jewish community was joined by Jews from the rest of Europe, as well as from Arab lands, from Morocco to [[Babylon]].{{citation needed|date=October 2018}} Jewish communities were enriched culturally, intellectually, and religiously by the commingling of these diverse Jewish traditions.{{explain|date=October 2018}}

Arabic culture, of course, also made a lasting impact on Sephardic cultural development. General re-evaluation of [[scripture]] was prompted by Muslim anti-Jewish [[polemics]] and the spread of [[rationalism]], as well as the anti-[[Rabbinic Judaism|Rabbanite]] polemics of [[Karaite Judaism|Karaites]]. The cultural and intellectual achievements of the Arabs, and much of the scientific and philosophical speculation of [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek culture]], which had been best preserved by Arab scholars, was made available to the educated Jew. The meticulous regard the Arabs had for grammar and style also had the effect of stimulating an interest in [[philology|philological]] matters in general among Jews. Arabic became the main language of Sephardic science, philosophy, and everyday business, as had been the case with Babylonian ''[[geonim]]''. This thorough adoption of the Arabic language also greatly facilitated the assimilation of Jews into Moorish culture, and Jewish activity in a variety of professions, including medicine, commerce, finance, and agriculture increased.

By the ninth century, some members of the Sephardic community felt confident enough to take part in [[Proselytism|proselytizing]] amongst Christians. This included the heated correspondences sent between [[Bishop Bodo|Bodo Eleazar]], a former Christian [[deacon]] who had converted to Judaism in 838, and the Bishop of [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] [[Álvaro of Córdoba (Mozarab)|Paulus Albarus]], who had converted from Judaism to Christianity. Each man, using such [[epithets]] as "wretched compiler", tried to convince the other to return to his former faith, to no avail.{{citation needed|date=October 2019}}

The Golden Age is most closely identified with the reign of [[Abd al-Rahman III]] (882–942), the first independent [[Caliph of Cordoba]], and in particular with the career of his Jewish councilor, [[Hasdai ibn Shaprut]] (882–942). Within this context of cultural [[patronage]], studies in Hebrew, literature, and linguistics flourished.

Hasdai benefitted world Jewry not only indirectly by creating a favorable environment for scholarly pursuits within Iberia, but also by using his influence to intervene on behalf of foreign Jews: in his letter to [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] [[Helena Lekapene|Princess Helena]], he requested protection for the Jews under Byzantine rule, attesting to the fair treatment of the Christians of ''al-Andalus'', and perhaps indicating that such was contingent on the treatment of Jews abroad.

One notable contribution to Christian intellectualism is [[Ibn Gabirol]]'s [[Neo-Platonism|neo-Platonic]] ''Fons Vitae'' ("The Source of Life;" "Mekor Hayyim"). Thought by many to have been written by a Christian, this work was admired by Christians and studied in monasteries throughout the Middle Ages, though the work of Solomon Munk in the 19th century proved that the author of ''Fons Vitae'' was the Jewish ibn Gabirol.<ref>Richard Gottheil, Stephen S. Wise, Michael Friedländer, [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?letter=I&artid=17 "Ibn Gabriol, Solomon ben Juday (Abu Ayyub Sulaiman Ibn Yaḥya Ibn Jabirul), known also as Avicebron"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610132813/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=17&letter=I|date=10 June 2008}}, ''JewishEncyclopedia.com''. Retrieved 2011-11-20.</ref>

In addition to contributions of original work, the Sephardim were active as translators. Mainly in [[Toledo School of Translators|Toledo]], texts were translated between Greek, Arabic, Hebrew, and Latin. In translating the great works of Arabic, Hebrew, and Greek into Latin, Iberian Jews were instrumental in bringing the fields of science and philosophy, which formed much of the basis of [[Renaissance]] learning, into the rest of Europe.

In the early 11th century, centralized authority based at Cordoba broke down following the [[Berber people|Berber]] invasion and the ousting of the Umayyads. In its stead arose the independent ''[[taifa]]'' principalities under the rule of local [[Muwallad]], Arab, Berber, or [[Slavic peoples|Slavonic]] leaders. Rather than having a stifling effect, the disintegration of the caliphate expanded the opportunities to Jewish and other professionals. The services of Jewish scientists, doctors, traders, poets, and scholars were generally valued by Christian and Muslim rulers of regional centers, especially as order was restored in recently conquered towns. Rabbi [[Samuel ha-Nagid]] (ibn Naghrela) was the Vizier of [[Granada]]. He was succeeded by his son [[Joseph ibn Naghrela]] who was slain by an incited mob along with most of the Jewish community. The remnant fled to [[Lucena, Córdoba|Lucena]].

[[File:Havdal.jpg|thumb|Observing the [[Havdalah]] ritual, 14th-century Spain|alt=]]
The first major and most violent persecution in Islamic Spain was the [[1066 Granada massacre]], which occurred on 30 December, when a Muslim mob stormed the royal palace in [[Granada]], [[crucifixion|crucified]] [[Jew]]ish [[vizier]] [[Joseph ibn Naghrela]] and massacred most of the Jewish population of the city after rumors spread that the powerful vizier was plotting to kill the weak-minded and drunk King [[Badis ibn Habus]].<ref>Nagdela (Nagrela), Abu Husain Joseph Ibn by Richard Gottheil, Meyer Kayserling, ''Jewish Encyclopedia''. 1906 ed.</ref> According to the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia, "More than 1,500 Jewish families, numbering 4,000 persons, fell in one day,"<ref>[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=412&letter=G&search=Granada Granada] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224005745/http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=412&letter=G&search=Granada|date=24 December 2010}} by Richard Gottheil, [[Meyer Kayserling]], ''[[Jewish Encyclopedia]]''. 1906 ed.</ref> a number contested by some historians who deem it to be an example of "the usual hyperbole in numerical estimates, with which history abounds."<ref>Erika Spivakovsky (1971). "The Jewish presence in Granada". ''Journal of Medieval History''. 2 (3): 215–238. {{doi|10.1016/0304-4181(76)90021-x}}.</ref>

The decline of the Golden Age began before the completion of the Christian ''[[Reconquista]]'', with the penetration and influence of the [[Almoravides]], and then the [[Almohad]]s, from North Africa. These more intolerant sects abhorred the liberality of the Islamic culture of ''al-Andalus'', including the position of authority some ''dhimmis'' held over Muslims. When the Almohads gave the Jews a choice of either death or conversion to Islam, many Jews emigrated. Some, such as the family of [[Maimonides]], fled south and east to the more tolerant Muslim lands, while others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.

Meanwhile, the ''Reconquista'' continued in the north throughout the 12th century. As various Arab lands fell to the Christians, conditions for some Jews in the emerging Christian kingdoms became increasingly favorable. As had happened during the reconstruction of towns following the breakdown of authority under the Umayyads, the services of Jews were employed by the victorious Christian leaders. Sephardic knowledge of the language and culture of the enemy, their skills as diplomats and professionals, as well as their desire for relief from intolerable conditions—the very same reasons that they had proved useful to the Arabs in the early stages of the Muslim invasion—made their services very valuable.

However, the Jews from the Muslim south were not entirely secure in their northward migrations. Old prejudices were compounded by newer ones. Suspicions of complicity with the Muslims were alive and well as Jews immigrated, speaking Arabic. However, many of the newly arrived Jews of the north prospered during the late 11th and early 12th centuries. The majority of Latin documentation regarding Jews during this period refers to their landed property, fields, and vineyards.

In many ways life had come full circle for the Sephardim of ''al-Andalus''. As conditions became more oppressive during the 12th and 13th centuries, Jews again looked to an outside culture for relief. Christian leaders of reconquered cities granted them extensive autonomy, and Jewish scholarship recovered somewhat and developed as communities grew in size and importance. However, the Reconquista Jews never reached the same heights as had those of the Golden Age.{{Jews and Judaism sidebar |Communities}}

=== After the Reconquista ===
{{Main|Expulsion of Jews from Spain}}
Among the Sephardim were many who were the descendants, or heads, of wealthy families and who, as ''[[Marranos]]'', had occupied prominent positions in the countries they had left. Some had been stated officials, others had held positions of dignity within the Church; many had been the heads of large banking-houses and mercantile establishments, and some were physicians or scholars who had officiated as teachers in high schools.
Their Spanish or [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] was a [[lingua franca]] that enabled Sephardim from different countries to engage in commerce and diplomacy.

With their social equals they associated freely, without regard to religion and more likely with regard to equivalent or comparative education, for they were generally well read, which became a tradition and expectation. They were received at the courts of sultans, kings, and princes, and often were employed as ambassadors, envoys, or agents. The number of Sephardim who have rendered important services to different countries is considerable as [[Samuel Abravanel]] (or "Abrabanel"—financial councilor to the viceroy of [[Naples]]) or [[Moses Curiel]] (or "Jeromino Nunes da Costa"-serving as Agent to the Crown of Portugal in the [[United Provinces (Low Countries)|United Provinces]]).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Israel |first1=Jonathan I |date=1987 |title=Duarte Nunes da Costa (Jacob Curiel), of Hamburg, Sephardi Nobleman and Communal Leader (1585-1664) |journal=Studia Rosenthaliana |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=14–34 |jstor=41481641 |id={{INIST|12056558}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Biale |first=David |author1-link=David Biale |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UUUZ1fVWdvQC&q=geronimo+nunes+da+costa&pg=PA650 |title=Cultures of the Jews: A New History |date=2012-08-29 |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-307-48346-1 |language=en |access-date=20 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415224628/https://books.google.com/books?id=UUUZ1fVWdvQC&q=geronimo+nunes+da+costa&pg=PA650 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Among other names mentioned are those of Belmonte, [[Joseph Nasi|Nasi]], [[Francisco Pacheco]], Blas, [[Pedro de Herrera]], [[Palache]], [[Pimentel (surname)|Pimentel]], [[Azevedo]], Sagaste, [[Joseph Salvador|Salvador]], [[Sasportas]], [[Costa (surname)|Costa]], [[Curiel family|Curiel]], [[Cansino]], [[Schönenberg (surname)|Schönenberg]], Sapoznik (Zapatero), [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], Miranda, [[Toledano]], [[Pereira (surname)|Pereira]], and [[Teixeira]].

The Sephardim distinguished themselves as physicians and statesmen, and won the favor of rulers and princes, in both the Christian and the Islamic world. That the Sephardim were selected for prominent positions in every country where they settled was only in part due to the fact that Spanish had become a world-language through the expansion of Spain into the world-spanning Spanish Empire—the cosmopolitan cultural background after long associations with Islamic scholars of the Sephardic families also made them extremely well educated for the [[historical era|times]], even well into the [[Age of Enlightenment|European Enlightenment]].

For a long time, the Sephardim took an active part in [[Spanish literature]]; they wrote in prose and in rhyme, and were the authors of theological, philosophical, [[wikt:belletristic|belletristic]] (aesthetic rather than content-based writing), pedagogic (teaching), and mathematical works. The rabbis, who, in common with all the Sephardim, emphasized a pure and euphonious pronunciation of Hebrew, delivered their sermons in Spanish or in Portuguese. Several of these sermons have appeared in print. Their thirst for knowledge, together with the fact that they associated freely with the outer world, led the Sephardim to establish new educational systems. Wherever they settled, they founded schools that used Spanish as the medium of instruction.
Theatre in Constantinople was in Judæo-Spanish since it was forbidden to Muslims.

[[File:Massacre de lisboa.jpg|thumb|A representation of the 1506 [[Lisbon Massacre|Jewish Massacre]] in Lisbon.|alt=]]
In Portugal, the Sephardim were given important roles in the sociopolitical sphere and enjoyed a certain amount of protection from the Crown (e.g. [[Yahia Ben Yahia]], first "Rabino Maior" of Portugal and supervisor of the public revenue of the first King of Portugal, [[Don (honorific)|D.]] [[Afonso Henriques]]). Even with the increasing pressure from the Catholic Church, this state of affairs remained more or less constant and the number of Jews in Portugal grew with those fleeing from Spain. This changed with the marriage of D. [[Manuel I of Portugal]] with the daughter of the [[Catholic Monarchs]] of the newly born Spain. In 1497 the Decree ordering the expulsion or forced conversion of all the Jews was passed, and the Sephardim either fled or went into secrecy under the guise of "Cristãos Novos", i.e. [[New Christians]] (this Decree was symbolically revoked in 1996 by the [[Assembly of the Republic (Portugal)|Portuguese Parliament]]). Those who fled to [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]] were only allowed to land provided they received baptism. Those who were fortunate enough to reach the [[Ottoman Empire]] had a better fate: the Sultan [[Bayezid II]] sarcastically{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} sent his thanks to Ferdinand for sending him some of his best subjects, thus "impoverishing his own lands while enriching his (Bayezid's)". Jews arriving in the Ottoman Empire were mostly resettled in and around [[Thessalonica]] and to some extent in [[Constantinople]] and [[İzmir]]. This was followed by a [[Marrano#Massacre at Lisbon|great massacre of Jews in the city of]] [[Lisbon]] in 1506 and the establishment of the [[Portuguese Inquisition]] in 1536. This caused the flight of the Portuguese Jewish community, which continued until the extinction of the Courts of Inquisition in 1821; by then there were very few Jews in Portugal.

In [[Amsterdam]], where Jews were especially prominent in the 17th century on account of their number, wealth, education, and influence, they established poetical academies after Spanish models; two of these were the ''Academia de Los Sitibundos'' and the ''Academia de Los Floridos''. In the same city they also organized the first Jewish educational institution, with graduate classes in which, in addition to [[Talmud]]ic studies, the instruction was given in the [[Hebrew language]]. The most important synagogue, or [[Synagogue|Esnoga]], as it is usually called amongst Spanish and Portuguese Jews, is the [[Amsterdam Esnoga]]—usually considered the "mother synagogue", and the historical center of the Amsterdam [[minhag]].

A sizable Sephardic community had settled in [[Morocco]] and other [[North Africa|Northern African]] countries, which were colonized by France in the 19th century. Jews in Algeria were given French citizenship in 1870 by the ''décret Crémieux'' (previously Jews and Muslims could apply for French citizenship, but had to renounce the use of traditional religious courts and laws, which many did not want to do). When France withdrew from [[Algeria]] in 1962, the local Jewish communities largely relocated to France. There are some tensions between some of those communities and the earlier French Jewish population (who were mostly [[Ashkenazi Jews]]), and with Arabic-Muslim communities.

=== In the Age of Discoveries ===
[[File:Interieur van de Portugese synagoge te Amsterdam, SK-A-3738.jpg|thumb|left|Interior of the [[Portuguese Synagogue (Amsterdam)|Portuguese synagogue]] in Amsterdam, c. 1680]]
The largest part of Spanish Jews expelled in 1492 fled to Portugal, where they eluded persecution for a few years. The [[History of the Jews in Portugal|Jewish community in Portugal]] was perhaps then some 15% of that country's population.<ref name="Kayserling" /> They were declared Christians by Royal decree unless they left, but the King hindered their departure, needing their artisanship and working population for Portugal's overseas enterprises and territories. Later Sephardic Jews settled in many trade areas controlled by the Empire of Philip II and others. With various countries in Europe also the Sephardic Jews established commercial relations. In a letter dated 25 November 1622, King [[Christian IV of Denmark]] invites Jews of Amsterdam to settle in [[Glückstadt]], where, among other privileges, the free exercise of their religion would be assured to them.

[[Álvaro Caminha]], in [[Cape Verde]] islands, who received the land as a grant from the crown, established a colony with Jews forced to stay on the island of [[São Tomé]]. [[Príncipe]] island was settled in 1500 under a similar arrangement. Attracting settlers proved difficult, however, the Jewish settlement was a success and their descendants settled many parts of Brazil.<ref>{{cite web |date=2009-08-04 |title=The Expulsion 1492 Chronicles, section XI: "The Vale of Tears", quoting Joseph Hacohen (1496–1577); also, section XVII, quoting 16th-century author Samuel Usque |url=http://www.aish.com/h/9av/aas/52421817.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131003125410/http://www.aish.com/h/9av/aas/52421817.html |archive-date=3 October 2013 |access-date=2013-12-16 |publisher=Aish.com}}</ref> In 1579 [[Luis de Carvajal y de la Cueva]] a Portuguese-born [[Converso]], Spanish-Crown officer, was awarded a large swath of territory in New Spain, known as [[Nuevo León|Nuevo Reino de León]]. He founded settlements with other conversos that would later become [[Monterrey]].

In particular, Jews established relations between the Dutch and South America. They contributed to the establishment of the Dutch West Indies Company in 1621, and some were members of the directorate. The ambitious schemes of the Dutch for the conquest of Brazil were carried into effect through Francisco Ribeiro, a Portuguese captain, who is said to have had Jewish relations in the [[Dutch Republic|Netherlands]]. Some years afterward, when the Dutch in Brazil appealed to the Netherlands for craftsmen of all kinds, many Jews went to Brazil. About 600 Jews left Amsterdam in 1642, accompanied by two distinguished scholars—[[Isaac Aboab da Fonseca]] and [[Moses Raphael de Aguilar]]. Jews supported the Dutch in the struggle between the Netherlands and Portugal for possession of Brazil.
[[File:Execution of Mariana de Carabajal.jpg|thumbnail|right|Execution of Mariana de Carabajal in [[Mexico City]], daughter of [[Francisca Nuñez de Carabajal]], in 1601 by the ''Santo Oficio''.]]
In 1642, Aboab da Fonseca was appointed rabbi at [[Kahal Zur Israel Synagogue]] in the Dutch colony of [[Pernambuco]] ([[Recife]]), Brazil. Most of the white inhabitants of the town were Sephardic Jews from Portugal who had been banned by the [[Portuguese Inquisition]] to this town at the other side of the Atlantic Ocean. In 1624, the colony had been occupied by the Dutch. By becoming the rabbi of the community, Aboab da Fonseca was the first appointed rabbi of the Americas. The name of his congregation was [[Kahal Zur Israel Synagogue]] and the community had a synagogue, a [[mikveh]] and a [[yeshiva]] as well. However, during the time he was a rabbi in Pernambuco, the Portuguese re-occupied the place again in 1654, after a struggle of nine years. Aboab da Fonseca managed to return to Amsterdam after the occupation of the Portuguese. Members of his community immigrated to North America and were among the founders of [[New York City]], but some Jews took refuge in [[Seridó]].

The Sephardic [[Qahal|kehilla]] in [[Zamość]] in the 16th and 17th centuries was one of its kind in all of [[Poland]] at that time. It was an autonomous institution, and until the mid-17th century it was not under the authority of the highest organ of the Jewish self-government in the Republic of Poland - the [[Council of Four Lands]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Historia społeczności {{!}} Wirtualny Sztetl |url=https://sztetl.org.pl/pl/miejscowosci/z/17-zamosc/99-historia-spolecznosci/138301-historia-spolecznosci |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180225043103/https://sztetl.org.pl/pl/miejscowosci/z/17-zamosc/99-historia-spolecznosci/138301-historia-spolecznosci |archive-date=25 February 2018 |access-date=2021-06-23 |website=sztetl.org.pl}}</ref>

Besides merchants, a great number of physicians were among the Spanish Jews in Amsterdam: Samuel Abravanel, David Nieto, Elijah Montalto, and the Bueno family; Joseph Bueno was consulted in the illness of Prince Maurice (April 1623). Jews were admitted as students at the university, where they studied medicine as the only branch of the science of practical use to them, for they were not permitted to practice law, and the oath they would be compelled to take excluded them from the professorships. Neither were Jews taken into the trade-guilds: a resolution passed by the city of Amsterdam in 1632 (the cities being autonomous) excluded them. Exceptions, however, were made in the case of trades that related to their religion: printing, bookselling, and the selling of meat, poultry, groceries, and drugs. In 1655 a Jew was, exceptionally, permitted to establish a sugar-refinery.

Jonathan Ray, a professor of Jewish theological studies, has argued that the community of Sephardim was formed more during the 1600s than the medieval period. He explains that prior to expulsion Spanish Jewish communities did not have a shared identity in the sense that developed in diaspora. They did not carry any particular Hispano-Jewish identity into exile with them, but certain shared cultural traits contributed to the formation of the diaspora community from what had historically been independent communities.<ref>Jonathan S Ray. ''After Expulsion: 1492 and the Making of Sephardic Jewry''. New York University Press (2013), p. 7-8</ref>

=== The Holocaust ===
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-179-1575-08, Ioannina, Deportation von Juden.jpg|thumb|left|A young woman weeps during the deportation of Jews of [[Ioannina]]  (Greece) on 25 March 1944.|alt=]]

The [[Holocaust]] that devastated European Jewry and virtually destroyed its centuries-old culture also wiped out the great European population centers of Sephardic Jewry and led to the almost complete destruction of its unique language and traditions. Sephardi Jewish communities from France and the Netherlands in the northwest to Yugoslavia and Greece in the southeast almost disappeared.

On the eve of World War II, the European Sephardi community was concentrated in Southeastern Europe countries of [[Kingdom of Greece|Greece]], [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]], and [[Kingdom of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]]. Its leading centers were in [[Salonika]], [[Sarajevo]], [[Belgrade]], and [[Sofia]]. The experience of Jewish communities in those countries during the war varied greatly and depended on the type of regime under which they fell.

The Jewish communities of Yugoslavia and northern Greece, including the 50,000 Jews of Salonika, fell under direct [[Axis occupation of Greece|German occupation in April 1941]] and bore the full weight and intensity of Nazi repressive measures from dispossession, humiliation, and forced labor to hostage-taking, and finally deportation to the [[Auschwitz concentration camp]] and extermination.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sephardi Jews during the Holocaust |url=https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10006079 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710020017/https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10006079 |archive-date=10 July 2017 |access-date=2017-08-22 |website=www.ushmm.org |language=en}}</ref>

The Jewish population of southern Greece fell under the jurisdiction of the [[Kingdom of Italy|Italians]] who eschewed the enactment of anti-Jewish legislation and resisted whenever possible German efforts to transfer them to occupied Poland, until the surrender of Italy on 8 September 1943 brought the Jews under German control.

Sephardi Jews in Bosnia and Croatia were ruled by a German-created [[Independent State of Croatia]] state from April 1941, which subjected them to pogrom-like actions before herding them into local camps where they were murdered side by side with Serbs and Roma (see [[Porajmos]]). The Jews of Macedonia and Thrace were controlled by Bulgarian occupation forces, which after rendering them stateless, rounded them up and turned them over to the Germans for deportation.

Finally, the Jews of Bulgaria proper were under the rule of a Nazi ally that subjected them to ruinous anti-Jewish legislation, but ultimately yielded to pressure from Bulgarian parliamentarians, clerics, and intellectuals not to deport them. More than 50,000 [[Bulgarian Jews]] were thus saved.

The Jews in North Africa identified themselves only as Jews or European Jews, having been westernized by French and Italian colonization. During World War II and until [[Operation Torch]], the Jews of [[French protectorate in Morocco|Morocco]], [[French Algeria|Algeria]], and [[French protectorate of Tunisia|Tunesia]], governed by pro-Nazi [[Vichy France]], suffered the same antisemitic legislation that Jews suffered in France mainland. They did not, however, directly suffer the more extreme Nazi Germany antisemitic policies, and nor did the Jews in [[Italian Libya]]. The Jewish communities in those European North Africa countries, in Bulgaria, and in Denmark were the only ones who were spared the mass deportation and mass murder that afflicted other Jewish communities. [[Operation Torch]] therefore saved more than 400,000 Jews in European North Africa.

=== Later history and culture ===
The Jews in French Algeria were awarded French citizenship by 1870 [[Crémieux Decree]]. They were therefore considered part of the European [[pieds noirs]] community in spite of having been established in North Africa for many centuries, rather than subject to the [[Indigénat]] status imposed on their Muslim former neighbors. Most consequently moved to France in the late 1950s and early 1960s after [[Tunisia]], [[Morocco]] and [[Algeria]] became independent, and they now make up a majority of the French Jewish community.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Virtual Jewish History Tour, France |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/France.html#History |work=[[Jewish Virtual Library]]}}</ref>

{{Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries}}

Today, the Sephardim have preserved the romances and the ancient melodies and songs of Spain and Portugal, as well as a large number of old [[Portuguese proverbs|Portuguese]] and [[Spanish proverbs]].<ref>For the largest online collection of Sephardic folk literature, visit [http://www.sephardifolklit.org/ Folk Literature of the Sephardic Jews.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060414022721/http://sephardifolklit.org/|date=14 April 2006}}</ref> A number of [[children's play]]s, like, for example, ''El Castillo'', are still popular among them, and they still manifest a fondness for the dishes peculiar to Iberia, such as the ''pastel'', or ''pastelico'', a sort of meat-pie, and the ''pan de España'', or ''pan de León''. At their festivals, they follow the Spanish custom of distributing ''dulces'', or ''dolces'', a confection wrapped in paper bearing a picture of the ''[[magen David]]'' (six-pointed star).

In Mexico, the Sephardic community originates mainly from [[Syria]], Turkey, Greece, and [[Bulgaria]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kaminer |first1=José |date=25 August 2010 |title=Los judíos y su presencia en México desde el siglo XVI |trans-title=Jews and their presence in Mexico since the 16th century |url=https://diariojudio.com/opinion/los-judios-y-su-presencia-en-mexico-desde-el-siglo-xvi/5594/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124214032/https://diariojudio.com/opinion/los-judios-y-su-presencia-en-mexico-desde-el-siglo-xvi/5594/ |archive-date=24 November 2020 |access-date=21 November 2020 |website=Diario Judío |language=es}}</ref> In 1942 the ''[[Colegio Hebreo Tarbut]]'' was founded in collaboration with the [[Ashkenazi]] family and instruction was in [[Yiddish]]. In 1944 the Sephardim community established a separate "[[Colegio Hebreo Sefaradí]]" with 90 students where instruction was in Hebrew and complemented with classes on Jewish customs. By 1950 there were 500 students. In 1968 a group of young Sephardim created the group ''Tnuat Noar Jinujit Dor Jadash'' in support of the creation of the state of Israel. In 1972 the ''Majazike Tora'' institute is created aiming to prepare young male Jews for their [[Bar and Bat Mitzvah|Bar Mitzvah]].<ref>{{cite web |title=History of the Sephardim Community in Mexico |url=http://www.sefaradi.org.mx/PaginaWebCHS/Presentacion_Institucional/ComunidadSefaradi4.htm |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071023083604/http://sefaradi.org.mx/PaginaWebCHS/Presentacion_Institucional/ComunidadSefaradi4.htm |archive-date=23 October 2007}}</ref>

While the majority of [[American Jews]] today are Ashkenazim, in Colonial times Sephardim made up the majority of the Jewish population. For example, the 1654 Jews who arrived in [[New Amsterdam]] fled from the colony of [[Recife]], Brazil after the Portuguese seized it from the Dutch. Through most of the 18th century, American synagogues conducted and recorded their business in Portuguese, even if their daily language was English. It was not until widespread German immigration to the United States in the 19th century that the tables turned and Ashkenazim (initially from Germany but by the 20th century from Eastern Europe) began to dominate the American Jewish landscape.

The Sephardim usually have followed the general rules for [[Spanish naming customs|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese name]]s. Many used to bear Portuguese and Spanish names; however, it is noteworthy that a large number of Sephardic names are of [[Hebrew]] and [[Arabic]] roots and are totally absent in Iberian patronyms and are therefore often seen as typically Jewish. Many of the names are associated with non-Jewish (Christian) families and individuals and are by no means exclusive to Jews. After 1492, many [[marranos]] changed their names to hide their Jewish origins and avoid persecution, adopting professions and even translating such patronyms to local languages like Arabic and even German.{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} It was common to choose the name of the Parish Church where they have been baptized into the Christian faith, such as Santa Cruz or the common name of the word "Messiah" (Savior/Salvador) or adopted the name of their Christian godparents.<ref>{{cite book |last=Roth |first=Cecil |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmarrano00roth |title=A History of the Marranos |publisher=Schocken Books |year=1975 |isbn=978-0-8052-0463-6}}</ref> Dr. Mark Hilton's research demonstrated in IPS DNA testing that the last name of Marranos linked with the location of the local parish was correlated 89.3%

In contrast to Ashkenazic Jews, who do not name newborn children after living relatives, Sephardic Jews often name their children after the children's grandparents, even if they are still alive. The first son and daughter are traditionally named after the paternal grandparents, then the maternal parents' names are next in line for the remaining children. After that, additional children's names are "free", so to speak, meaning that one can choose whatever name, without any more "naming obligations." The only instance in which Sephardic Jews will not name after their own parents is when one of the spouses shares a common first name with a mother/father-in-law (since Jews will not name their children after themselves.) There are times though when the "free" names are used to honor the memory of a deceased relative who died young or childless. These conflicting naming conventions can be troublesome when children are born into mixed Ashkenazic-Sephardic households.

A notable exception to the distinct Ashkenazi and Sephardi naming traditions is found among [[History of the Jews in the Netherlands|Dutch Jews]], where Ashkenazim have for centuries followed the tradition otherwise attributed to Sephardim. See [[Chuts]].

===Citizenship laws in Spain and Portugal===
Since April 2013, Sephardim who are descendants of those expelled in the inquisition are entitled to claim Portuguese citizenship provided that they "belong to a Sephardic community of Portuguese origin with ties to Portugal". The amendment to Portugal's "Law on Nationality" was approved unanimously on 11 April 2013,<ref>{{cite web |date=13 April 2013 |title=Descendants of 16th century Jewish refugees can claim Portuguese citizenship |url=http://www.haaretz.com/jewish-world/jewish-world-news/descendants-of-16th-century-jewish-refugees-can-claim-portuguese-citizenship-1.515268 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131024153130/http://www.haaretz.com/jewish-world/jewish-world-news/descendants-of-16th-century-jewish-refugees-can-claim-portuguese-citizenship-1.515268 |archive-date=24 October 2013 |access-date=6 October 2013 |publisher=Haaretz.com}}</ref> and remains open to applications {{as of|lc=yes|March 2023}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nationality: Acquisition by Descendants of Sephardic Jews |url=https://washingtondc.embaixadaportugal.mne.gov.pt/en/consular-services/consular-services/acquisition-of-portuguese-nationality-by-descendants-of-sephardic-jews |access-date=2023-03-24 |publisher=Embassy of Portugal to the United States of America}}</ref>

A similar law was approved in Spain in 2014<ref>{{cite web |date=9 February 2014 |title=522 años después, los sefardíes podrán tener nacionalidad española |url=http://www.elmundo.es/espana/2014/02/09/52f7d51ee2704ee6598b456b.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140217034957/http://www.elmundo.es/espana/2014/02/09/52f7d51ee2704ee6598b456b.html |archive-date=17 February 2014 |access-date=11 February 2014}}</ref> and passed in 2015. By the expiry date on 30 September 2019, Spain had received 127,000 applications, mostly from [[Latin America]].<ref name="spain">{{cite news |title=Spain gets 127,000 citizenship applications from Sephardi Jews |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-49890620 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191002043615/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-49890620 |archive-date=2 October 2019 |access-date=2 October 2019 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref>

=== Sephardic pedigrees ===
:''See also [[Jewish surname#Sephardic and Mizrahi Jewish communities]], [[Spanish naming customs|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese name]]s, [[List of Sephardic Jews]], [[List of Iberian Jews]]''
{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|
* [[Abravanel|Abravanel family]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Abravanel, Abarbanel|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/631-abravanel-abarbanel|access-date=2020-07-23|website=www.jewishencyclopedia.com|archive-date=23 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200723224449/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/631-abravanel-abarbanel|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Aboab family]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Aboab|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/344-aboab|access-date=2020-07-23|website=www.jewishencyclopedia.com|archive-date=4 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804153034/https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/344-aboab|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Alfandari|Alfandari family]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Alfandari {{!}} Encyclopedia.com|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/alfandari|access-date=2020-07-23|website=www.encyclopedia.com|archive-date=24 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724001129/https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/alfandari|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Al-Tarās family]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Altaras {{!}} Encyclopedia.com|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/altaras|access-date=2020-07-24|website=www.encyclopedia.com|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807034102/https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/altaras|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Astruc family]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Astruc|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2053-astruc|access-date=2020-07-23|website=www.jewishencyclopedia.com|archive-date=24 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724000035/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2053-astruc|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Benveniste|Benveniste family]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Benveniste|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/3011-benveniste|access-date=2020-07-23|website=www.jewishencyclopedia.com|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807040300/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/3011-benveniste|url-status=live}}</ref>
*[[Bezerra family]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sephardicgen.com/databases/SephardimCom2009.htm |title=Sephardim.com Namelist |author=Harry Stein |website=SephardicGen }}</ref> *[[Cansino family]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Serfaty|first=Nicole|date=2010-10-01|title=Cansino Family|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-jews-in-the-islamic-world/cansino-family-SIM_0004920|journal=Encyclopedia of Jews in the Islamic World|language=en|access-date=23 July 2020|archive-date=24 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724132053/https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-jews-in-the-islamic-world/cansino-family-SIM_0004920|url-status=live}}</ref> * [[Carabajal family]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4015-carabajal# |title=Carabajal |publisher=JewishEncyclopedia.com |access-date=2013-12-16 |archive-date=28 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120528232221/http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4015-carabajal |url-status=live }}</ref> * [[Carasso family]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Grimes |first1=William |title=Daniel Carasso, a Pioneer of Yogurt, Dies at 103 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/21/business/21carasso.html |work=The New York Times |date=21 May 2009 }}</ref> * [[Carvajal family]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4089-carvajal-antonio-fernandez |title=Carvajal, Antonio Fernandez |publisher=JewishEncyclopedia.com |access-date=2013-12-16 |archive-date=11 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120511181240/http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4089-carvajal-antonio-fernandez |url-status=live }}</ref> * [[Castellazzo family]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Castellazzo|url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4123-castellazzo|access-date=2020-07-23|website=jewishencyclopedia.com|archive-date=24 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724025824/http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4123-castellazzo|url-status=live}}</ref> * [[Cicurel family]]<ref>Beinin, Joel (1998). ''The Dispersion of Egyptian Jewry: Culture, Politics, and the Formation of a Modern Diaspora''. Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. p. 48. {{ISBN|978-0-520-21175-9}}.</ref> * [[Coronel family]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.geni.com/people/Abraham-Senior-Coronel/6000000004988963168 |title=Abraham Senior Coronel |date=12 October 1412 |publisher=Geni.com |access-date=2014-08-31 |archive-date=3 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903171332/http://www.geni.com/people/Abraham-Senior-Coronel/6000000004988963168 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2022}}  * [[Curiel family]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Curiel|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/curiel|access-date=2020-07-23|website=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807033105/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/curiel|url-status=live}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} * [[De Castro family (Sephardi Jewish)|De Castro family]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Castro, De, Family |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4132-castro-de-family|access-date=2020-07-23|website=www.jewishencyclopedia.com|archive-date=24 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724003130/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4132-castro-de-family|url-status=live}}</ref> * [[Espadero family]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://digifindingaids.cjh.org/?pID=365459 |title=Guide to the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society, Boston, Massachusetts, Records , undated, 1886–1977 (Bulk dates 1938–1954), I-96 |publisher=Digifindingaids.cjh.org |access-date=2018-10-15 |archive-date=31 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191031135922/http://digifindingaids.cjh.org/?pID=365459 |url-status=live }}</ref> * [[Galante (pedigree)|Galante family]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Galante|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6467-galante|access-date=2020-07-23|website=www.jewishencyclopedia.com|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807061511/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6467-galante|url-status=live}}</ref> * [[Henriques family]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Henriques|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/7565-henriques|access-date=2020-07-23|website=www.jewishencyclopedia.com|archive-date=23 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200723224226/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/7565-henriques|url-status=live}}</ref> * [[Ibn Tibbon|Ibn Tibbon family]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Tibbon, Ibn Encyclopedia.com|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/tibbon-ibn|access-date=2020-07-23|website=www.encyclopedia.com|archive-date=23 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200723224742/https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/tibbon-ibn|url-status=live}}</ref> * [[Laguna family]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/search?utf8=✓&keywords=Laguna&commit=searchsephardim.com|title=Laguna|publisher=JewishEncyclopedia.com|access-date=2014-12-16|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428013535/https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/search?utf8=%E2%9C%93&keywords=Laguna&commit=searchsephardim.com|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sephardim.com/namelist.shtml?mode=form&from=L&to=L&Search=Search|title=Laguna|publisher=sephardim.com|access-date=2014-12-16|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821161936/http://www.sephardim.com/namelist.shtml?mode=form&from=L&to=L&Search=Search|archive-date=21 August 2014}}</ref> * [[Lindo family]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/lindo |title=Lindo |access-date=26 September 2018 |archive-date=26 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926090132/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/lindo |url-status=live }}</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} * [[Lopes Suasso|Lopes Suasso family]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Suasso|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/suasso|access-date=2020-07-23|website=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807021542/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/suasso|url-status=live}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} * [[Mocatta|Mocatta family]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Descendants of Jacob Lumbrozzo de Mattos|url=http://www.barrow-lousada.org/PDFdocs/Lousada%20Family%20Genealogy%20from%20David%20Man%202007.pdf|access-date=23 July 2020|archive-date=24 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124215421/http://www.barrow-lousada.org/PDFdocs/Lousada%20Family%20Genealogy%20from%20David%20Man%202007.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> * [[Monsanto family]]<ref>{{cite web|last=jameswilarupton|date=2016-09-25|title=Monsanto's Jewish|url=https://jameswilarupton.wordpress.com/2016/09/25/monsantos-jewish-supremacist-history/|access-date=2020-07-23|website=James Wilar Upton|language=en|archive-date=24 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724181255/https://jameswilarupton.wordpress.com/2016/09/25/monsantos-jewish-supremacist-history/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} * [[Najara family]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Najara|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/najara|access-date=2020-07-23|website=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807104546/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/najara|url-status=live}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} * [[Pallache family]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Palache|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/palache|access-date=2020-07-23|website=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org|archive-date=4 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104011705/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0015_0_15331.html|url-status=live}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} * [[Paredes family]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Paredes/Pardess|url=http://www.pardess.com|access-date=2021-06-02|website=www.pardess.com/|archive-date=15 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615032648/http://pardess.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> * [[Sanchez family]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/search?utf8=✓&keywords=sanchez |title=Sanchez (Sanches), Antonio Ribeiro |publisher=JewishEncyclopedia.com |access-date=2013-12-16 |archive-date=28 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428030741/https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/search?utf8=%E2%9C%93&keywords=sanchez |url-status=live }}</ref> * [[Sassoon family]]<ref>{{cite web|last1=Jacobs|last2=Schloessinger|first1=Joseph|first2=Max|title=Ibn Shoshan|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/8022-ibn-shoshan|website=www.jewishencyclopedia.com|access-date=2016-09-30|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807025840/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/8022-ibn-shoshan|url-status=live}}</ref> * [[Senigaglia family]]<ref>V. Colorni, Judaica minore, Milano 1983 and Shlomo Simonshon, History of the Jews in the Duchy of Mantua, Jerusalem, 1977.</ref> * [[Soncino family (printers)|Soncino family]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Soncino|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13914-soncino|access-date=2020-07-23|website=www.jewishencyclopedia.com|archive-date=23 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200723224429/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13914-soncino|url-status=live}}</ref> * [[Sosa family]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13929-sosa-simon-de |title=Sosa, Simon De |publisher=JewishEncyclopedia.com |access-date=2013-12-16 |archive-date=7 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107203029/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13929-sosa-simon-de |url-status=live }}</ref> * [[Taitazak family]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Serrai {{!}} Encyclopedia.com|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/serrai|access-date=2020-07-23|website=www.encyclopedia.com|archive-date=23 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200723224429/https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/serrai|url-status=live}}</ref> * [[Taroç family]]<ref>Beinart, Haim (1991). ''גלות אחר גולה: מחקרים בתולדות עם ישראל מוגשים לפרופסור חיים ביינאר: Studies in the History of the Jewish People Presented to Professor Haim Beinart''. Editorial CSIC – CSIC Press. p. 89. {{ISBN|978-965-235-037-4}}.</ref> * [[Vaez|Vaez family]]<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Singer |first1=Isidore |last2=Adler |first2=Cyrus |publisher=Ktav Publishing House |date=1901 |url=http://archive.org/details/jewishencycloped12sing |title=The Jewish encyclopedia: a descriptive record of the history, religion, literature, and customs of the Jewish people from the earliest times to the present day}}</ref>

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