Editing Semitic languages (section)

==Phonology==
The phonologies of the attested Semitic languages are presented here from a [[comparative method|comparative]] point of view (see [[Proto-Semitic language#Phonology]] for details on the phonological reconstruction of Proto-Semitic used in this article). The reconstruction of Proto-Semitic (PS) was originally based primarily on [[Arabic]], whose phonology and morphology (particularly in [[Classical Arabic]]) is very conservative, and which preserves as contrastive 28 out of the evident 29 consonantal phonemes.{{sfn|Versteegh|1997|p=13}} with {{nounderlines|[[Samekh|*s]]}} {{IPAblink|s}} and {{nounderlines|[[Shin (letter)|*š]]}} {{IPAblink|ʃ}} merging into Arabic {{IPAslink|s}} {{nounderlines|{{angbr|[[Sīn|س]]}}}} and {{nounderlines|[[Shin (letter)|*ś]]}} {{IPAblink|ɬ}} becoming Arabic {{IPAslink|ʃ}} {{nounderlines|{{angbr|[[šīn|ش]]}}}}.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ '''Proto-Semitic consonant phonemes'''{{sfnp|Kogan|2011|p=54}}

|-
! Type
! [[Manner of articulation|Manner]]
! [[Voice (phonetics)|Voicing]]
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[Interdental consonant|Interdental]]
! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]/[[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! [[Pharyngeal consonant|Pharyngeal]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! rowspan="6" | [[Obstruent]]
! rowspan="3" | [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
! style="font-size: 80%;" | [[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]]
| {{nounderlines|[[Pe (Semitic letter)|*p]]}} {{IPAblink|p}} || || {{nounderlines|[[Taw|*t]]}} {{IPAblink|t}} || || || {{nounderlines|[[Kaph|*k]]}} {{IPAblink|k}} || ||
|-
! style="font-size: 80%;" | [[Emphatic consonant|emphatic]]
| ({{IPAlink|pʼ}}){{efn|Woodard (2008, p. 219) suggests the presence of an emphatic p in some disparate Semitic languages may indicate that such an emphatic was present in Proto-Semitic.}}|| || {{nounderlines|[[Teth|*ṭ]]}} {{IPAblink|tʼ}} || || || {{nounderlines|[[Qoph|*q]]}}/{{nounderlines|[[Qoph|ḳ]]}} {{IPAblink|kʼ}} || || {{nounderlines|[[Aleph|*ʼ]]}},{{nounderlines|[[Aleph|ˀ]]}} {{IPAblink|ʔ}}
|-
! style="font-size: 80%;" | [[Voiced consonant|voiced]]
| {{nounderlines|[[Bet (letter)|*b]]}} {{IPAblink|b}} || || {{nounderlines|[[Dalet|*d]]}} {{IPAblink|d}} || || || {{nounderlines|[[Gimel|*g]]}} {{IPAblink|ɡ}}|| ||
|-
! rowspan="3" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
! style="font-size: 80%;" |[[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]]
| || {{nounderlines|[[Ṯāʾ|*ṯ]]}} {{IPAblink|θ}} || {{nounderlines|[[Samekh|*s]]}} {{IPAblink|s}} || {{nounderlines|[[Shin (letter)|*š]]}} {{IPAblink|ʃ}} || {{nounderlines|[[Shin (letter)|*ś]]}} {{IPAblink|ɬ}} || {{nounderlines|[[Ḫāʾ|*ḫ]]}} [{{IPAlink|x}}~{{IPAlink|χ}}] || {{nounderlines|[[Heth|*ḥ]]}} {{IPAblink|ħ}} || {{nounderlines|[[He (letter)|*h]]}} {{IPAblink|h}}
|-
! style="font-size: 80%;" |[[Emphatic consonant|emphatic]]
| || [[Ẓāʾ|*ṱ]]{{efn|The emphatic interdental fricative is usually spelled *ṯ̣ but is replaced here by *ṱ for better readability.}}/{{nounderlines|[[Ẓāʾ|θ̣]]}}/{{nounderlines|[[Ẓāʾ|ẓ]]}} {{IPAblink|θʼ}} || {{nounderlines|[[Tsade|*ṣ]]}} {{IPAblink|sʼ}} || || {{nounderlines|[[Ḍād|*ṣ́]]}}/{{nounderlines|[[Ḍād|ḏ̣]]}} {{IPAblink|ɬʼ}} || ({{IPAlink|xʼ}}~{{IPAlink|χʼ}}){{efn|Huehnergard (2003, p.49) presents a minority opinion that an ejective velar fricative existed in Proto-Semitic.}} || ||
|-
! style="font-size: 80%;" | [[Voiced consonant|voiced]]
| || {{nounderlines|[[Ḏāl|*ḏ]]}} {{IPAblink|ð}} || {{nounderlines|[[Zayin|*z]]}} {{IPAblink|z}}|| || || {{nounderlines|[[Ghayn|*ġ]]}}/{{nounderlines|[[Ghayn|ǵ]]}} [{{IPAlink|ɣ}}~{{IPAlink|ʁ}}] || {{nounderlines|[[Ayin|*ʻ]]}},{{nounderlines|[[Ayin|ˤ]]}} {{IPAblink|ʕ}} ||
|-
! rowspan="3" | [[Sonorant|Resonant]]
! colspan="2" style="font-size: 80%;" | [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
| || || {{nounderlines|[[Resh|*r]]}} {{IPAblink|r}} || || || || ||
|-
! colspan="2" style="font-size: 80%;" | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| {{nounderlines|[[Waw (letter)|*w]]}} {{IPAblink|w}} || || || {{nounderlines|[[Yodh|*y]]}} {{IPAblink|j}} || {{nounderlines|[[Lamedh|*l]]}} {{IPAblink|l}} || || ||
|-
! colspan="2" style="font-size: 80%;" | [[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
| {{nounderlines|[[Mem|*m]]}} {{IPAblink|m}} || || {{nounderlines|[[Nun (letter)|*n]]}} {{IPAblink|n}} || || || || ||
|-
| colspan="11" | {{notelist}}
|}
Note: the fricatives *s, *z, *ṣ, *ś, *ṣ́, and *ṱ may also be interpreted as affricates (/t͡s/, /d͡z/, /t͡sʼ/, /t͡ɬ/, /t͡ɬʼ/, and /t͡θʼ/), as discussed in {{slink|Proto-Semitic language|Fricatives}}.

This comparative approach is natural for the [[consonant]]s, as sound correspondences among the consonants of the Semitic languages are very straightforward for a family of its time depth. Sound shifts affecting the vowels are more numerous and, at times, less regular.

===Consonants===
Each Proto-Semitic phoneme was reconstructed to explain a certain regular sound correspondence between various Semitic languages. Note that Latin letter values (''italicized'') for extinct languages are a question of transcription; the exact pronunciation is not recorded.

Most of the attested languages have merged a number of the reconstructed original fricatives, though South Arabian retains all fourteen (and has added a fifteenth from *p > f).

In Aramaic and Hebrew, all non-emphatic stops occurring singly after a vowel were softened to fricatives, leading to an alternation that was often later phonemicized as a result of the loss of gemination.

In languages exhibiting pharyngealization of emphatics, the original velar emphatic has rather developed to a [[Uvular consonant|uvular]] stop {{IPA|[q]}}.
<div style="max-width:100%; overflow:auto;">
{| class="wikitable" style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"
|+ Regular correspondences of the Proto-Semitic consonants{{sfn|Kogan|2012|pp=54–151}}
! rowspan="3" | Proto<br/>Semitic
! rowspan="3" | IPA
![[Ancient South Arabian]]
![[Ancient North Arabian]]
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | [[Arabic]]
! rowspan="3"|
! colspan="2" |[[Maltese language|Maltese]]
! rowspan="3" |
! [[Akkadian language|Akka&shy;dian]]
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="2" | [[Ugaritic]]
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]]
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="7" |[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | [[Aramaic]]
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | [[Geʽez]]
|-
! rowspan="2" |<small>[[Ancient South Arabian script|Written]]</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>Written</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>[[Arabic script|Written]]</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>[[Romanization of Arabic|{{Abbr|Translit.|Transliteration}}]]</small>
! colspan="2" |<small>{{Abbr|Pronun.|Pronunciation}}</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>[[Maltese alphabet|Written]]</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>[[Maltese language#Phonology|{{Abbr|Pronun.|Pronunciation}}]]</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>{{Abbr|Translit.|Transliteration}}</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>Written</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>{{Abbr|Pronun.|Pronunciation}}</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>Written</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>[[Phoenician language#Phonology|{{Abbr|Pronun.|Pronunciation}}]]</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>{{Abbr|Translit.|Transliteration}}</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>[[Hebrew alphabet|Written]]</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>[[Romanization of Hebrew|{{Abbr|Translit.|Transliteration}}]]</small>
! colspan="2" |<small>{{Abbr|Pronun.|Pronunciation}}</small>
! colspan="3" |[[Samaritan Hebrew]]
! rowspan="2" |<small>[[Aramaic alphabet|Imperial]]</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>[[Syriac alphabet|Syriac]]</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>{{Abbr|Translit.|Transliteration}}</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>[[Geʽez script|Written]]</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>[[Geʽez#Phonology|Pronounced]]</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>{{Abbr|Translit.|Transliteration}}</small>
|-
! style="font-size:85%" | [[Classical Arabic|Classical]]{{sfn|Watson|2002|p=13}}
! style="font-size:85%" | [[Modern Standard Arabic|Modern Standard]]
![[Biblical Hebrew|<small>Classical</small>]]
![[Modern Hebrew|<small>Modern</small>]]
! style="font-size:85%" | [[Samaritan script|Written]]
!<small>{{Abbr|Translit.|Transliteration}}</small>
!<small>[[Samaritan Hebrew#Phonology|{{Abbr|Pronun.|Pronunciation}}]]</small>
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Bet (letter)|*b]]}}
! {{IPAblink|b}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩨}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪈}}}}
| rowspan="29"|
| <big>ب</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|b}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/b/}}
| rowspan="29"|
| b
|{{IPA|/b/}}
| rowspan="29"|
| ''{{transliteration|sem|b}}''
| rowspan="29"|
| 𐎁 || ''{{transliteration|sem|b}}''
| rowspan="29"|
| 𐤁 
|{{IPA|/b/}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|b}}''
| rowspan="29"|
| <big>ב</big>
| {{transliteration|sem|b}}, {{transliteration|sem|ḇ}}<sup>5</sup>
|{{IPA|/b/, /β/}}<sup>5</sup>
|{{IPA|/b/, /v/}}
| ࠁ
|{{transliteration|sem|b}}
|{{IPA|/b/}}
| rowspan="29"|
| 𐡁 
| ܒ || {{transliteration|sem|ḇ}}, {{transliteration|sem|b}}<sup>5</sup>
| rowspan="29"|
| በ || {{IPA|/b/}}
|{{transliteration|sem|b}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Gimel|*g]]}}
! {{IPAblink|ɡ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩴}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪔}}}}
| <big>ج</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|ǧ}}''
| {{IPA|/ɟ ~ d͡ʒ/}}<sup>9</sup>
| {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}}<sup>11</sup>
|ġ
|{{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|g}}''
| 𐎂 || ''{{transliteration|sem|g}}''
| 𐤂 
|{{IPA|/ɡ/}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|g}}''|| <big>ג</big>
| {{transliteration|sem|g}}, {{transliteration|sem|ḡ}}<sup>5</sup>
|{{IPA|/ɡ/, /ɣ/}}<sup>5</sup>
|{{IPA|/ɡ/}}
| ࠂ
|{{transliteration|sem|g}}
| {{IPA|/ɡ/}}
| 𐡂 
| ܓ || {{transliteration|sem|ḡ}}, {{transliteration|sem|g}}<sup>5</sup>
| ገ || {{IPA|/ɡ/}}
|{{transliteration|sem|g}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Pe (Semitic letter)|*p]]}}
! {{IPAblink|p}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩰}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪐}}}}
| <big>ف</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|f}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/f/}}
|f
|{{IPA|/f/}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|p}}''
| 𐎔 || ''{{transliteration|sem|p}}''
| 𐤐 
|{{IPA|/p/}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|p}}''|| <big>פ</big>
| {{transliteration|sem|p}}, {{transliteration|sem|p̄}}<sup>5</sup>
|{{IPA|/pʰ/, /ɸ/}}<sup>5</sup>
|{{IPA|/p/, /f/}}
| ࠐ
|{{transliteration|sem|f}}
|{{IPA|/f/}}
| 𐡐 
| ܦ || {{transliteration|sem|p̄}}, {{transliteration|sem|p}}<sup>5</sup>
| ፈ || {{IPA|/f/}}
|{{transliteration|sem|f}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Kaph|*k]]}}
! {{IPAblink|k}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩫}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪋}}}}
| <big>ك</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|k}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/k/}}
|k
|{{IPA|/k/}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|k}}''
| 𐎋 || ''{{transliteration|sem|k}}''
| 𐤊 
|{{IPA|/k/}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|k}}''|| <big>כ</big>
| {{transliteration|sem|k}}, {{transliteration|sem|ḵ}}<sup>5</sup>
|{{IPA|/kʰ/, /x/}}<sup>5</sup>
|{{IPA|/k/, /x/}}
| ࠊ
|{{transliteration|sem|k}}
| {{IPA|/k/}}
| 𐡊 
| ܟ || {{transliteration|sem|ḵ}}, {{transliteration|sem|k}}<sup>5</sup>
| ከ || {{IPA|/k/}}
|{{transliteration|sem|k}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Qoph|*ḳ]]}}
! {{IPAblink|kʼ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩤}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪄}}}}
| <big>ق</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|q}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/q/}}
|q
|{{IPA|/ʔ ~ q/}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|q}}''
| 𐎖 || ''{{transliteration|sem|ḳ}}''
| 𐤒 
|{{IPA|/q/}}||''{{transliteration|sem|q}}''|| <big>ק</big>
| {{transliteration|sem|ḳ}}
|{{IPA|/kˤ/ ~ /q/}}
|{{IPA|/k/}}
|ࠒ
|{{transliteration|sem|q}}
| {{IPA|/q/}}
| 𐡒 
| ܩ || {{transliteration|sem|q}}
| ቀ || {{IPA|/kʼ/}}
|{{transliteration|sem|ḳ}}
|-
!{{transliteration|sem|[[Dalet|*d]]}}
!{{IPAblink|d}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩵}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪕}}}}
|<big>د</big>
|''{{transliteration|sem|d}}''
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|/d/}}
| rowspan="2" |d
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/d/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|d}}''
|𐎄
|''{{transliteration|sem|d}}''
|𐤃
|{{IPA|/d/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|d}}''
|<big>ד</big>
|{{transliteration|sem|d}}, {{transliteration|sem|ḏ}}<sup>5</sup>
|{{IPA|/d/, /ð/}}<sup>5</sup>
|{{IPA|/d/}}
|ࠃ
|{{transliteration|sem|d}}
|{{IPA|/d/}}
|𐡃
|ܕ
|{{transliteration|sem|ḏ}}, {{transliteration|sem|d}}<sup>5</sup>
|ደ
|{{IPA|/d/}}
|{{transliteration|sem|d}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Ḏāl|*ḏ]]}}
! {{IPAblink|ð}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩹}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪙}}}}
| <big>ذ</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|ḏ}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ð/}}
| rowspan="2" | ''{{transliteration|sem|z}}''
| 𐎏 || ''{{transliteration|sem|ḏ}}'' > ''{{transliteration|sem|d}}''
| rowspan="2" | 𐤆 
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/z/}}|| rowspan="2" | ''{{transliteration|sem|z}}''|| rowspan="2" | <big>ז</big>
| rowspan="2" | {{transliteration|sem|z}}
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/z/}}
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/z/}}
| rowspan="2" |ࠆ
| rowspan="2" |{{transliteration|sem|z}}
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/z/}}
| {{bdo|ltr|𐡆<sup>3</sup>, 𐡃}}
| {{bdo|ltr|ܙ<sup>3</sup>, ܕ}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|ḏ}}''<sup>3</sup>, {{transliteration|sem|d}}
| rowspan="2" | ዘ || rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/z/}}
| rowspan="2" |{{transliteration|sem|z}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Zayin|*z]]}}
! {{IPAblink|z}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩸}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪘}}}}
| <big>ز</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|z}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/z/}}
|ż
|{{IPA|/z/}}
| 𐎇 || ''{{transliteration|sem|z}}''
| 𐡆 
| ܙ || {{transliteration|sem|z}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Samekh|*s]]}}
! {{IPAblink|s}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩯}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪏}}}}
| rowspan="2" | <big>س</big>
| rowspan="2" | ''{{transliteration|sem|s}}''
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/s/}}
| rowspan="2" |s
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/s/}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|s}}''
| 𐎒 || ''{{transliteration|sem|s}}''
| 𐤎 
|{{IPA|/s/}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|s}}''|| <big>ס</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|s}}''
|{{IPA|/s/}}
|{{IPA|/s/}}
|ࠎ
|{{transliteration|sem|s}}
|{{IPA|/s/}}
| 𐡎 
| ܣ || {{transliteration|sem|s}}
| rowspan="2" | ሰ || rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/s/}}
| rowspan="2" |{{transliteration|sem|s}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Shin (letter)|*š]]}}
! {{IPAblink|ʃ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩪}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪊}}}}
| rowspan="3" | ''{{transliteration|sem|š}}''
| rowspan="2" | 𐎌 || rowspan="2" | ''{{transliteration|sem|š}}''
| rowspan="3" | 𐤔 
| rowspan="3" |{{IPA|/ʃ/}}|| rowspan="3" | ''{{transliteration|sem|š}}''|| <big>שׁ</big>
| {{transliteration|sem|š}}
|{{IPA|/ʃ/}}
|{{IPA|/ʃ/}}
| rowspan="3" |ࠔ
| rowspan="3" |{{transliteration|sem|š}}
| rowspan="3" |{{IPA|/ʃ/}}
| 𐡔 
| ܫ || {{transliteration|sem|š}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Shin (letter)|*ś]]}}
! {{IPAblink|ɬ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩦}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪆}}}}
| <big>ش</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|š}}''
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|/ʃ/}}
|x
|{{IPA|/ʃ/}}|| {{bdo|ltr|<big>שׂ</big><sup>1</sup>}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ś}}<sup>1</sup>
|{{IPA|/ɬ/}}
|{{IPA|/s/}}
| {{bdo|ltr|𐡔<sup>3</sup>, 𐡎}} 
| {{bdo|ltr|ܫ<sup>3</sup>, ܣ}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|ś}}''<sup>3</sup>, {{transliteration|sem|s}}
| ሠ || {{IPA|/ɬ/}}
|{{transliteration|sem|ś}}
|-
!{{transliteration|sem|[[Ṯāʾ|*ṯ]]}}
!{{IPAblink|θ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩻}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪛}}}}
|<big>ث</big>
|''{{transliteration|sem|ṯ}}''
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|/θ/}}
| rowspan="3" |t
| rowspan="3" |{{IPA|/t/}}
|𐎘
|''{{transliteration|sem|ṯ}}''
|<big>שׁ</big>
|{{transliteration|sem|š}}
|{{IPA|/ʃ/}}
|{{IPA|/ʃ/}}
|{{bdo|ltr|𐡔<sup>3</sup>, 𐡕}}
|{{bdo|ltr|ܫ<sup>3</sup>, ܬ}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|ṯ}}''<sup>3</sup>, {{transliteration|sem|t}}
|ሰ
|{{IPA|/s/}}
|{{transliteration|sem|s}}
|-
!{{transliteration|sem|[[Taw|*t]]}}
!{{IPAblink|t}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩩}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪉}}}}
|<big>ت</big>
|''{{transliteration|sem|t}}''
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|/t/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|t}}''
|𐎚
|''{{transliteration|sem|t}}''
|𐤕
|{{transliteration|sem|t}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|t}}''
|<big>ת</big>
|{{transliteration|sem|t}}, {{transliteration|sem|ṯ}}<sup>5</sup>
|{{IPA|/tʰ/, /θ/}}<sup>5</sup>
|{{IPA|/t/}}
|ࠕ
|{{transliteration|sem|t}}
|{{IPA|/t/}}
|𐡕
|ܬ
|{{transliteration|sem|ṯ}}, {{transliteration|sem|t}}<sup>5</sup>
|ተ
|{{IPA|/t/}}
|{{transliteration|sem|t}}
|-
!{{transliteration|sem|[[Teth|*ṭ]]}}
!{{IPAblink|tʼ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩷}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪗}}}}
|<big>ط</big>
|''{{transliteration|sem|ṭ}}''
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|/tˤ/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|ṭ}}''
|𐎉
|''{{transliteration|sem|ṭ}}''
|𐤈
|{{IPA|/tˤ/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|ṭ}}''
|<big>ט</big>
|{{transliteration|sem|ṭ}}
|{{IPA|/tˤ/}}
|{{IPA|/t/}}
|ࠈ
|{{transliteration|sem|ṭ}}
|{{IPA|/tˤ/}}
|𐡈
|ܛ
|{{transliteration|sem|ṭ}}
|ጠ
|{{IPA|/tʼ/}}
|{{transliteration|sem|ṭ}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Ẓāʾ|*ṱ]]}}
! {{IPAblink|θʼ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩼}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪜}}}}
| <big>ظ</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|ẓ}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ðˤ/}}
|d
|{{IPA|/d/}}
| rowspan="3" |''{{transliteration|sem|ṣ}}''
| 𐎑 ||''{{transliteration|sem|ẓ}}''<sup>12</sup> > ''{{transliteration|sem|ġ}}''
| rowspan="3" |𐤑
| rowspan="3" |{{IPA|/sˤ/}}
| rowspan="3" |''{{transliteration|sem|ṣ}}''
| rowspan="3" |<big>צ</big>
| rowspan="3" |''{{transliteration|sem|ṣ}}''
| rowspan="3" |{{IPA|/sˤ/}}
| rowspan="3" |{{IPA|/t͡s/}}
| rowspan="3" |ࠑ
| rowspan="3" |{{transliteration|sem|ṣ}}
| rowspan="3" |{{IPA|/sˤ/}}
| {{bdo|ltr|𐡑<sup>3</sup>, 𐡈}}
| {{bdo|ltr|ܨ<sup>3</sup>, ܛ}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|ṯʼ }}''<sup>3</sup>, {{transliteration|sem|ṭ}}
| rowspan="2" | ጸ || rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/t͡sʼ/}}
| rowspan="2" |''{{transliteration|sem|ṣ}}''
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Tsade|*ṣ]]}}
! {{IPAblink|sʼ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩮}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪎}}}}
| <big>ص</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|ṣ}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/sˤ/}}
|s
|{{IPA|/s/}}
| rowspan="2" | 𐎕 || rowspan="2" | ''{{transliteration|sem|ṣ}}''
| 𐡑 
| ܨ || {{transliteration|sem|ṣ}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Ḍād|*ṣ́]]}}
! {{IPAblink|ɬʼ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩳}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪓}}}}
| <big>ض</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|ḍ}}''
| {{IPA|/ɮˤ ~ dˤ/}}
| {{IPA|/dˤ/}}
|d
|{{IPA|/d/}}
| {{bdo|ltr|𐡒<sup>3</sup>, 𐡏}}
| {{bdo|ltr|ܩ<sup>3</sup>, ܥ}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|*ġʼ }}''<sup>3</sup>, {{transliteration|sem|ʻ}}
| ፀ || {{IPA|/t͡ɬʼ/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|ḍ}}''
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Ghayn|*ġ]]}}
! {{IPAblink|ɣ}}~{{IPAblink|ʁ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩶}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪖}}}}
| <big>غ</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|ḡ}}''
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|/ɣ ~ ʁ/}}
| rowspan="2" |għ
| rowspan="2" |/[[Pharyngealization|ˤ]][[Length (phonetics)|ː]]/
| ''{{transliteration|sem|ḫ}}''
| 𐎙 || ''{{transliteration|sem|ġ}}'',''{{transliteration|sem|ʻ}}''
| rowspan="2" | 𐤏 
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/ʕ/}}|| rowspan="2" | ''{{transliteration|sem|ʻ}}''|| rowspan="2" | {{bdo|ltr|<big>ע</big><sup>2</sup>}}
| rowspan="2" | ''{{transliteration|sem|ʻ}}''<sup>2</sup>
|{{IPA|/ʁ/}}
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/ʕ/ ~ /ʔ/ ~ ∅}}<sup>14</sup>
| rowspan="2" | ࠏ
| rowspan="2" |{{transliteration|sem|ʻ}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ʕ/, /ʔ/ ~ ∅}}
| {{bdo|ltr|𐡏<sup>3</sup>}} 
| {{bdo|ltr|ܥ<sup>3</sup>}} || ''{{transliteration|sem|ġ}}''<sup>3</sup>, {{transliteration|sem|ʻ}}
| rowspan="2" | ዐ || rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ʕ/}}
| rowspan="2" |''{{transliteration|sem|ʻ}}''
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Ayin|*ʻ]]}}
! {{IPAblink|ʕ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩲}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪒}}}}
| <big>ع</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|ʻ}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ʕ/}}
| –<sup>4</sup>
| 𐎓 || ''{{transliteration|sem|ʻ}}''
|{{IPA|/ʕ/}}
| 𐡏 
| ܥ || {{transliteration|sem|ʻ}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Aleph|*ʼ]]}}
! {{IPAblink|ʔ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩱}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪑}}}}
| <big>ء</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|ʼ}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ʔ/}}
| –
| –
| –, ''ʾ''
| 𐎀, 𐎛, 𐎜 || ''{{transliteration|sem|ʼa}}'', ''{{transliteration|sem|ʼi}}'', ''{{transliteration|sem|ʼu}}''<sup>10</sup>
| 𐤀 
|{{IPA|/ʔ/}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|ʼ}}''|| <big>א</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|ʼ}}''
|{{IPA|/ʔ/}}
|{{IPA|/ʔ/ ~ ∅}}
|ࠀ
|{{transliteration|sem|ʼ}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ/ ~ ∅}}
| 𐡀 
| ܐ|| {{transliteration|sem|ʼ}}
| አ || {{IPA|/ʔ/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|ʼ}}''
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Ḫāʾ|*ḫ]]}}
! {{IPAblink|x}}~{{IPAblink|χ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩭}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪍}}}}
| <big>خ</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|ẖ}}''
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|/x ~ χ/}}
| rowspan="2" |ħ
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/ħ/}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|ḫ}}''
| 𐎃 || ''{{transliteration|sem|ḫ}}''
| rowspan="2" | 𐤇 
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/ħ/}}|| rowspan="2" | ''{{transliteration|sem|ḥ}}''|| rowspan="2" | {{bdo|ltr|<big>ח</big><sup>2</sup>}}
| rowspan="2" | {{transliteration|sem|ḥ}}<sup>2</sup>
|{{IPA|/χ/}}
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/χ/ ~ /ħ/}}<sup>14</sup>
| rowspan="2" | ࠇ
| rowspan="2" |{{transliteration|sem|ḥ}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ʕ/, /ʔ/ ~ ∅}}
| {{bdo|ltr|𐡇<sup>3</sup>}} 
| {{bdo|ltr|ܚ<sup>3</sup>}} || ''{{transliteration|ar|DIN|ḫ}}''<sup>3</sup>, {{transliteration|sem|ḥ}}
| ኀ || {{IPA|/χ/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|ḫ}}''
|-
!{{transliteration|sem|[[Heth|*ḥ]]}}
! {{IPAblink|ħ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩢}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪂}}}}
|<big>ح</big>
|''{{transliteration|sem|ḥ}}''
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|/ħ/}}
|  –<sup>4</sup>
| 𐎈 || ''{{transliteration|sem|ḥ}}''
|{{IPA|/ħ/}}
| 𐡇 
| ܚ 
|{{transliteration|sem|ḥ}}
|ሐ
|{{IPA|/ħ/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|ḥ}}''
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[He (letter)|*h]]}}
! {{IPAblink|h}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩠}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪀}}}}
| <big>ه</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|h}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/h/}}
| h
| /[[Length (phonetics)|ː]]/
| –
| 𐎅 || ''{{transliteration|sem|h}}''
| 𐤄 
|{{IPA|/h/}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|h}}''|| <big>ה</big>
| {{transliteration|sem|h}}
|{{IPA|/h/}}
|{{IPA|/h/ ~ ∅}}
|ࠄ
|{{transliteration|sem|h}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ/ ~ ∅}}
| 𐡄 
| ܗ|| {{transliteration|sem|h}}
| ሀ || {{IPA|/h/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|h}}''
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Mem|*m]]}}
! {{IPAblink|m}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩣}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪃}}}}
| <big>م</big>
| ''m''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/m/}}
|m
|{{IPA|/m/}}
| ''m''
| 𐎎 || ''m''
| 𐤌 
|{{IPA|/m/}}|| ''m''|| <big>מ</big>
| {{transliteration|sem|m}}
|/m/
|/m/
|ࠌ
|{{transliteration|sem|m}}
|/m/
| 𐡌 
| ܡ|| m
| መ || {{IPA|/m/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|m}}''
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Nun (letter)|*n]]}}
! {{IPAblink|n}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩬}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪌}}}}
| <big>ن</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|n}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/n/}}
|n
|{{IPA|/n/}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|n}}''
| 𐎐 || ''{{transliteration|sem|n}}''
| 𐤍 
|{{IPA|/n/}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|n}}''|| <big>נ</big>
| {{transliteration|sem|n}}
|/n/
|/n/
|ࠍ
|{{transliteration|sem|n}}
|/n/
| 𐡍 
| ܢ || {{transliteration|sem|n}}
| ነ || {{IPA|/n/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|n}}''
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Resh|*r]]}}
! {{IPAblink|ɾ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩧}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪇}}}}
| <big>ر</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|r}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/r/}}
|r
|{{IPA|/r/}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|r}}''
| 𐎗 || ''{{transliteration|sem|r}}''
| 𐤓 
|{{IPA|/r/}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|r}}''|| <big>ר</big>
| {{transliteration|sem|r}}
|/r/
|/ʁ/
| ࠓ
|{{transliteration|sem|r}}
| /ʁ/
| 𐡓 
| ܪ || {{transliteration|sem|r}}
| ረ || {{IPA|/r/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|r}}''
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Lamedh|*l]]}}
! {{IPAblink|l}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩡}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪁}}}}
| <big>ل</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|l}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/l/}}
|l
|{{IPA|/l/}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|l}}''
| 𐎍 || ''{{transliteration|sem|l}}''
| 𐤋 
|{{IPA|/l/}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|l}}''|| <big>ל</big>
| {{transliteration|sem|l}}
|{{IPA|/l/}}
|{{IPA|/l/}}
|ࠋ
|{{transliteration|sem|l}}
|{{IPA|/l/}}
| 𐡋 
| ܠ || {{transliteration|sem|l}}
| ለ || {{IPA|/l/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|l}}''
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Waw (letter)|*w]]}}
! {{IPAblink|w}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩥}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪅}}}}
| <big>و</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|w}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/w/}}
|w
|{{IPA|/w/}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|w}}''
| 𐎆 || ''{{transliteration|sem|w}}''
| 𐤅 
|{{IPA|/w/}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|w}}''|| <big>ו</big>
| {{transliteration|sem|w}}
|{{IPA|/ʋ/}}
|{{IPA|/v/ ~ /w/}}
|ࠅ
|{{transliteration|sem|w}}
| {{IPA|/b/}}
| 𐡅 
| ܘ || {{transliteration|sem|w}}
| ወ || {{IPA|/w/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|w}}''
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Yodh|*y]]}}
! {{IPAblink|j}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩺}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪚}}}}
| <big>ي</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|y}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/j/}}
|j
|{{IPA|/j/}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|y}}''
| 𐎊 || ''{{transliteration|sem|y}}''
| 𐤉 
|{{IPA|/j/}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|y}}''|| <big>י</big>
| {{transliteration|sem|y}}
|{{IPA|/j/}}
|{{IPA|/j/}}
|ࠉ
|{{transliteration|sem|y}}
|{{IPA|/j/}}
| 𐡉 
| ܝ || {{transliteration|sem|y}}
| የ || {{IPA|/j/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|y}}''
|}
</div>
<blockquote>Note: the fricatives *s, *z, *ṣ, *ś, *ṣ́, and *ṱ may also be interpreted as affricates (/t͡s/, /d͡z/, /t͡sʼ/, /t͡ɬ/, /t͡ɬʼ/, and /t͡θʼ/).</blockquote>
Notes:
# Proto-Semitic {{transliteration|sem|*ś}} was still pronounced as {{IPAblink|ɬ}} in Biblical Hebrew, but no letter was available in the [[Phoenician alphabet|Early Linear Script]], so the letter ש did double duty, representing both {{IPA|/ʃ/}} and {{IPA|/ɬ/}}. Later on, however, {{IPA|/ɬ/}} merged with {{IPA|/s/}}, but the old spelling was largely retained, and the two pronunciations of ש were distinguished graphically in [[Tiberian Hebrew]] as שׁ {{IPA|/ʃ/}} vs. שׂ {{IPA|/s/}} < {{IPA|/ɬ/}}.
# Biblical Hebrew as of the 3rd century BCE apparently still distinguished the phonemes {{transliteration|sem|ġ}} {{IPA|/ʁ/}} and {{transliteration|sem|ḫ}} {{IPA|/χ/}} from {{transliteration|sem|ʻ}} {{IPA|/ʕ/}} and {{transliteration|sem|ḥ}} {{IPA|/ħ/}}, respectively, based on transcriptions in the [[Septuagint]]. As in the case of {{IPA|/ɬ/}}, no letters were available to represent these sounds, and existing letters did double duty: ח {{IPA|/χ/ /ħ/}} and ע {{IPA|/ʁ/ /ʕ/}}. In both of these cases, however, the two sounds represented by the same letter eventually merged, leaving no evidence (other than early transcriptions) of the former distinctions.
# Although early Aramaic (pre-7th century BCE) had only 22 consonants in its alphabet, it apparently distinguished all of the original 29 Proto-Semitic phonemes, including {{transliteration|sem|*ḏ}}, {{transliteration|sem|*ṯ}}, {{transliteration|sem|*ṱ}}, {{transliteration|sem|*ś}}, {{transliteration|sem|*ṣ́}}, {{transliteration|sem|*ġ}}, and {{transliteration|sem|*ḫ}}{{snd}}although by [[Middle Aramaic]] times, these had all merged with other sounds. This conclusion is mainly based on the shifting representation of words etymologically containing these sounds; in early Aramaic writing, the first five are merged with {{transliteration|sem|z}}, {{transliteration|sem|š}}, {{transliteration|sem|ṣ}}, {{transliteration|sem|š}}, and {{transliteration|sem|q}} respectively, but later with {{transliteration|sem|d}}, {{transliteration|sem|t}}, {{transliteration|sem|ṭ}}, {{transliteration|sem|s}}, and {{transliteration|sem|ʿ}}.<ref name="bekins">{{cite web |url=http://balshanut.wordpress.com/essays/a-short-introduction-to-aramaic/old-aramaic-c-850-to-c-612-bce/ |date=2008-09-12 |title=Old Aramaic (c. 850 to c. 612 BCE) |last=Bekins |first=Peter |access-date=2011-08-22 |archive-date=18 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111018225506/http://balshanut.wordpress.com/essays/a-short-introduction-to-aramaic/old-aramaic-c-850-to-c-612-bce/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="harrison">{{cite web |url= http://www.linguistics.uwa.edu.au/__data/page/71159/Consonants.pdf |title=LIN325: Introduction to Semitic Languages. Common Consonant Changes |last=Harrison |first=Shelly |access-date=2006-06-25 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060821205928/http://www.linguistics.uwa.edu.au/__data/page/71159/Consonants.pdf <!-- Bot retrieved archive -->|archive-date = 2006-08-21}}</ref> (Also note that due to [[begadkefat]] spirantization, which occurred after this merger, OAm. t > ṯ and d > ḏ in some positions, so that PS *t,ṯ and *d, ḏ may be realized as either of t, ṯ and d, ḏ respectively.) The sounds {{transliteration|sem|*ġ}} and {{transliteration|sem|*ḫ}} were always represented using the pharyngeal letters {{transliteration|sem|ʿ}} and {{transliteration|sem|ḥ}}, but they are distinguished from the pharyngeals in the Demotic-script [[papyrus Amherst 63]], written about 200 BCE.<ref>{{citation|first=Stephen|last=Kaufman|contribution=Aramaic|editor-first=Robert|editor-last=Hetzron|title=The Semitic Languages|pages=117–119|year=1997|publisher=Routledge}}.</ref> This suggests that these sounds, too, were distinguished in Old Aramaic language, but written using the same letters as they later merged with.
# The earlier pharyngeals can be distinguished in Akkadian from the zero reflexes of *ḥ, *ʕ by e-coloring adjacent *a, e.g. pS ''*ˈbaʕal-um'' 'owner, lord' > Akk. ''bēlu(m)''.{{sfn|Dolgopolsky|1999|p=35}}
# Hebrew and Aramaic underwent [[begadkefat]] spirantization at a certain point, whereby the stop sounds {{IPA|/b ɡ d k p t/}} were [[lenition|softened]] to the corresponding fricatives {{IPA|[v ɣ ð x f θ]}} (written ''ḇ ḡ ḏ ḵ p̄ ṯ'') when occurring after a vowel and not geminated. This change probably happened after the original Old Aramaic phonemes {{IPA|/θ, ð/}} disappeared in the 7th century BCE,{{sfn|Dolgopolsky|1999|p=72}} and most likely occurred after the loss of Hebrew {{IPA|/χ, ʁ/}} {{circa|200 BCE}}.{{NoteTag|According to the generally accepted view, it is unlikely that begadkefat spirantization occurred before the merger of {{IPA|/χ, ʁ/}} and {{IPA|/ħ, ʕ/}}, or else {{IPA|[x, χ]}} and {{IPA|[ɣ, ʁ]}} would have to be contrastive, which is cross-linguistically rare. However, Blau argues that it is possible that lenited {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/χ/}} could coexist even if pronounced identically, since one would be recognized as an alternating allophone (as apparently is the case in Nestorian Syriac).{{sfn|Blau|2010|p=56}}}} It is known to have occurred in Hebrew by the 2nd century CE.{{sfn|Dolgopolsky|1999|p=73}} After a certain point this alternation became contrastive in word-medial and final position (though bearing low [[functional load]]), but in word-initial position they remained allophonic.<ref name="bbgd">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=78–81}}</ref> In [[Modern Hebrew]], the distinction has a higher functional load due to the loss of gemination, although only the three fricatives {{IPA|/v χ f/}} are still preserved (the fricative {{IPA|/x/}} is pronounced {{IPA|/χ/}} in modern Hebrew). [[Samaritan Hebrew]] hasn't undergone this process at all. 
# In the [[Northwest Semitic languages]], {{IPA|*/w/}} became {{IPA|*/j/}} at the beginning of a word, e.g. Hebrew ''yeled'' "boy" < ''*wald'' (cf. Arabic ''walad'').
# There is evidence of a rule of assimilation of /j/ to the following coronal consonant in pre-tonic position,{{clarify|reason=What does this mean? Palatalization? What are some examples?|date=February 2015}} shared by Hebrew, Phoenician, and Aramaic.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Garnier|first1=Romain|last2=Jacques|first2=Guillaume|title=A neglected phonetic law: The assimilation of pretonic yod to a following coronal in North-West Semitic|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies|volume=75|issue=1|pages=135–145|year=2012|url=https://www.academia.edu/1468535|doi=10.1017/s0041977x11001261|citeseerx=10.1.1.395.1033|s2cid=16649580|access-date=29 June 2014|archive-date=12 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412083911/https://www.academia.edu/1468535|url-status=live}}</ref>
# In [[Assyrian Neo-Aramaic]], {{IPAblink|ħ}} is nonexistent. In general cases, the language would lack [[pharyngeal consonant|pharyngeal]] fricative {{IPAblink|ʕ}} (as heard in ''[[Ayin]]''). However, /ʕ/ is retained in educational speech, especially among Assyrian priests.<ref>[[Sebastian Brock|Brock, Sebastian]] (2006). ''An Introduction to Syriac Studies''. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press. {{ISBN|1-59333-349-8}}.</ref>
#The [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatalization]] of Proto-Semitic [[Gimel|gīm]] {{IPA|/g/}} to Arabic {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}} jīm, might be connected to the pronunciation of [[Qoph|qāf]] {{IPA|/q/}} as a {{IPA|/g/}} gāf in most of the [[Peninsular Arabic|Arabian peninsula]]; since in most of the colloquial dialects of the Arabian Peninsula {{lang|ar|[[ج]]}} is pronounced jīm {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}} and {{lang|ar|[[ق]]}} is pronounced gāf {{IPA|/g/}}, except in western and southern [[Yemeni Arabic|Yemen]] and parts of [[Omani Arabic|Oman]] where {{lang|ar|[[ج]]}} is gīm {{IPA|/g/}} and {{lang|ar|[[ق]]}} is qāf {{IPA|/q/}}.
# Ugaritic orthography indicated the vowel after the [[glottal stop]].
#The Arabic letter ''{{transliteration|ar|ALA|jīm}}'' ({{lang|ar|[[ج]]}}) has three main pronunciations in Modern Standard Arabic. {{IPAblink|d͡ʒ}} in north Algeria, Iraq, also in most of the Arabian peninsula and as the predominant pronunciation of Literary Arabic outside the Arab world, {{IPAblink|ʒ}} occurs in most of the [[Levant]] and most North Africa; and {{IPAblink|ɡ}} is used in northern Egypt and some regions in Yemen and Oman. In addition to other minor allophones.
#''{{transliteration|sem|ṱ}}'' can be written ''{{transliteration|sem|ẓ}}'', and always is in the [[Ugaritic#Phonology|Ugaritic]] and [[Arabic alphabet#Table of basic letters|Arabic]] contexts. In Ugaritic, sometimes assimilates to ''{{transliteration|sem|ġ}}'', as in ''ġmʔ'' 'thirsty' (Arabic ''ẓmʔ'', Hebrew ''ṣmʔ'', but Ugaritic ''mẓmủ'' 'thirsty', root ''ẓmʔ'', is also attested).
#Early [[Amharic]] might have had a different phonology.
#The pronunciations /ʕ/ and /ħ/ for ''ʿAyin'' and ''Ḥet'', respectively, still occur among some older Mizrahi speakers, but for most modern Israelis, ''ʿAyin'' and ''Ḥet'' are realized as /ʔ, -/ and /χ ~ x/, respectively.

The following table shows the development of the various fricatives in Hebrew, Aramaic, Arabic and Maltese through cognate words:
<div style="max-width:100%; overflow:auto;">
{| class="wikitable" style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" | Proto-Semitic
! rowspan="2" |(General) Modern<br/>South Arabian 
! rowspan="2" | Arabic
! rowspan="2" |Maltese
! rowspan="2" | Aramaic
! rowspan="2" | Hebrew
! colspan="5" | Examples
|-
! Arabic
!Maltese
! Aramaic
! Hebrew
! meaning
|-
! {{IPA|*/ð/}} [[Ḏāl|*ḏ]]
|{{IPA|*/ð/}}
| {{IPA|*/ð/}} ذ
|{{IPA|*/d/}} d
| {{IPA|*/d/}} ד
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|*/z/}} ז
| ذهب <br/> ذَكَر
|deheb
–
| '''ד'''הב<br />דכרא
| '''ז'''הב<br />זָכָר
| 'gold'<br/>'male'
|-
! {{IPA|*/z/}}<sup>1</sup> [[Zayin|*z]]
|{{IPA|*/z/}}
| {{IPA|*/z/}} ز
|{{IPA|*/z/}} ż
| {{IPA|*/z/}} ז
| موازين <br/> زمن
|miżien
żmien
| מא'''ז'''נין<br />זמן
| מא'''ז'''נים<br />זמן
| 'scale'<br/>'time'
|-
! {{IPA|*/ɬ/}} [[Shin (letter)|*ś]]
|{{IPA|*/ɬ/}}
| {{IPA|*/ʃ/}} ش
|{{IPA|*/ʃ/}} x
| {{IPA|*/s/}} שׂ
| {{IPA|*/s/}} שׂ
| عشر
شهر
|għaxra
xahar
| עֲסַר
| עשׂר
סהר
| 'ten'
'moon/month'
|-
! {{IPA|*/s/}} [[Samekh|*s]]
|{{IPA|*/s/}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|*/s/}} س
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|*/s/}} s
| {{IPA|*/s/}} ס
| {{IPA|*/s/}} ס
| سكين 
|sikkina
| סכין
| סכין
| 'knife'
|-
! {{IPA|*/ʃ/}} [[Shin (letter)|*š]]
|{{IPA|*/ʃ/}}
| {{IPA|*/ʃ/}} שׁ
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|*/ʃ/}} שׁ
| سنة <br/> سلام
|sena
sliem
| '''שׁ'''נה<br />שלם
| '''שׁ'''נה<br />שלום
| 'year'<br/>'peace'
|-
! {{IPA|*/θ/}} [[Ṯāʾ|*ṯ]]
|{{IPA|*/θ/}}
| {{IPA|*/θ/}} ث
|{{IPA|*/t/}} t
| {{IPA|*/t/}} ת
| ثلاثة <br/> اثنان
|tlieta
tnejn
| תלת<br />תרין
| שלוש<br />שתים
| 'three'<br/>'two'
|-
! {{IPA|*/θʼ/}}<sup>1</sup> [[Ẓāʾ|*ṱ]]
|{{IPA|*/θʼ ~ ðʼ/}}
| {{IPA|*/ðˤ/}} ظ
|{{IPA|*/d/}} d
| {{IPA|*/tʼ/}} ט
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA|*/sˤ~ts/}}<sup>1</sup> צ
| ظل <br/> ظهر
|dell
–
| '''ט'''לה<br />טהרא
| '''צ'''ל<br />'''צ'''הרים
| 'shadow'<br/>'noon'
|-
! {{IPA|*/ɬʼ/}}<sup>1</sup> [[Ḍād|*ṣ́]]
|{{IPA|*/ɬʼ/}}
| {{IPA|*/dˤ/}} ض
|{{IPA|*/t/}} t
{{IPA|*/d/}} d
| {{IPA|*/ʕ/ ע}}
| أرض <br/> ضحك
|art
daħaq
| ארע<br />'''ע'''חק
| אר'''ץ'''<br />'''צ'''חק
| 'land'<br/>'laughed'
|-
! {{IPA|*/sʼ/}}<sup>1</sup> [[Tsade|*ṣ]]
|{{IPA|*/sʼ/}}
| {{IPA|*/sˤ/}} ص
|{{IPA|*/s/}} s
| {{IPA|*/sʼ/}} צ
| صرخ <br/> صبر
|
| '''צ'''רח<br />צבר
| '''צ'''רח<br />צבר
| 'shout'<br/>'watermelon-like plant'
|-
! {{IPA|*/χ/}} [[Ḫāʾ|*ḫ]]
|{{IPA|*/χ/}}
|{{IPA|*/x~χ/}} خ
|{{IPA|*/ħ/}} ħ
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|*/ħ/}} ח
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|*/ħ~χ/}} ח
| خمسة <br/> صرخ
|ħamsa
–
| חַמְשָׁה<br />צר'''ח'''
| חֲמִשָּׁה<br />צר'''ח'''
| 'five'<br/>'shout'
|-
! {{IPA|*/ħ/}} [[Heth|*ḥ]]
|{{IPA|*/ħ/}}
| {{IPA|*/ħ/}} ح
|{{IPA|*/ħ/}} ħ
| ملح<br />حلم
|melħ
ħolm
| מל'''ח'''<br />חלם
| מל'''ח''' <br/> חלום
| 'salt'<br/>'dream'
|-
! {{IPA|*/ʁ/}} [[Ghayn|*ġ]]
|{{IPA|*/ʁ/}}
|{{IPA|*/ɣ~ʁ/}} غ
|*/[[Pharyngealization|ˤ]][[Length (phonetics)|ː]]/ għ
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|*/ʕ/}} ע
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|*/ʕ~ʔ/}} ע
| غراب <br/> غرب
|għorab
għarb
| ערב<br />מערב
| עורב<br />מערב
| 'raven'<br/>'west'
|-
! {{IPA|*/ʕ/}} [[Ayin|*ʻ]]
|{{IPA|*/ʕ/}}
| {{IPA|*/ʕ/}} ع
|*/[[Pharyngealization|ˤ]][[Length (phonetics)|ː]]/ għ
| عبد<br />سبعة
|għabid
sebgħa
| '''ע'''בד<br />שבע
| '''ע'''בד <br/> שבע
| 'slave'<br/>'seven'
|}
</div>
# <small>possibly affricated (/dz/ /tɬʼ/ /ʦʼ/ /tθʼ/ /tɬ/)</small>

===Vowels===
{{see also|Proto-Afroasiatic language#Consonant correspondences}}
Proto-Semitic vowels are, in general, harder to deduce due to the [[nonconcatenative morphology]] of Semitic languages. The history of vowel changes in the languages makes drawing up a complete table of correspondences impossible, so only the most common reflexes can be given:
{| class="wikitable Unicode"
|+ Vowel correspondences in Semitic languages (in proto-Semitic stressed syllables){{sfn|Dolgopolsky|1999|pp=85–86}} 
! rowspan="2" | pS
! colspan="2" | Arabic
! colspan="2" | Aramaic
! colspan="3" | Hebrew
! rowspan="2" | Geʽez
! rowspan="2" | Akkadian
|-
! Classical
! Modern
! usually<sup>4</sup>
! <nowiki>/_C.ˈV</nowiki>
! <nowiki>/ˈ_.</nowiki><sup>1</sup>
! <nowiki>/ˈ_Cː</nowiki><sup>2</sup>
! <nowiki>/ˈ_C.C</nowiki><sup>3</sup>
|-
! *a
| a
| a
| a
| ə
| ā
| a
| ɛ
| a, later ä
| a, e, ē<sup>5</sup>
|-
! *i
| i
| i
| e, i,<br />[[West Syriac dialects|WSyr.]] ɛ
| ə
| ē
| e
| ɛ, e
| ə
| i
|-
! *u
| u
| u
| u, o
| ə
| ō
| o
| o
| ə, ʷə<sup>6</sup>
| u
|-
! *ā
| ā
| ā
| ā
|
| ō{{NoteTag|see [[Canaanite shift]]}}
|
|
| ā, later a
| ā, ē
|-
! *ī
| ī
| ī
| ī
|
| ī
|
|
| i
| ī
|-
! *ū
| ū
| ū
| ū
|
| ū
| ū
|
|u
| ū
|-
! *ay
| ay
| ē, ay
| [[Biblical Aramaic|BA]], [[Jewish Babylonian Aramaic|JA]] ay(i), ē,<br />[[West Syriac dialects|WSyr.]] ay/ī & ay/ē
|
| ayi, ay
|
|
| e
| ī
|-
! *aw
| aw
| ō, aw
| ō,<br />[[West Syriac dialects|WSyr.]] aw/ū
|
| ō,<br />[[pausa]]l ˈāwɛ
|
|
| o
| ū
|}
# in a stressed open syllable
# in a stressed closed syllable before a geminate
# in a stressed closed syllable before a consonant cluster
# when the proto-Semitic stressed vowel remained stressed
# pS *a,*ā > Akk. e,ē in the neighborhood of pS *ʕ,*ħ and before r
# i.e. pS *g,*k,*ḳ,*χ > Geʽez gʷ, kʷ,ḳʷ,χʷ / _u