Editing Saffron (section)

==Spice==

===Phytochemistry and sensory properties===
[[File:Picrocrocin.svg|thumb|Structure of [[picrocrocin]]:{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=4}}
{|
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|{{Legend|#AEAEFF|[[Anomer|β]]–[[Monosaccharide#Isomerism|D]]-glucopyranose derivative}}
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|{{Legend|#F5D76C|safranal moiety}}
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]]
[[File:Crocetin safranal esterification.png|thumb|[[Esterification]] reaction between [[crocetin]] and [[gentiobiose]]. Components of α–crocin:<ref name=dhar/>
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|{{Legend|#A6CAF0|[[Anomer|β]]–[[Monosaccharide#Isomerism|D]]-gentiobiose}}||{{Legend|#000000|crocetin}}
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]]
Saffron contains some 28 [[Volatile organic compound|volatile and aroma-yielding compounds]], dominated by [[ketone]]s and [[aldehyde]]s.<ref name="Amanpour">{{cite journal | last1=Amanpour | first1=Asghar | last2=Sonmezdag | first2=A. Salih | last3=Kelebek | first3=Hasim | last4=Selli | first4=Serkan | title=GC–MS–olfactometric characterization of the most aroma-active components in a representative aromatic extract from Iranian saffron (''Crocus sativus'' L.) | journal=Food Chemistry | volume=182 | year=2015 | issn=0308-8146 | doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.03.005 | pages=251–256|pmid=25842335}}</ref> Its main aroma-active compounds are [[safranal]] – the main compound responsible for saffron aroma – 4-ketoisophorone, and dihydrooxophorone.<ref name="dhar">{{cite journal | last1=Dhar | first1=Manoj K | last2=Sharma | first2=Munish | last3=Bhat | first3=Archana | last4=Chrungoo | first4=Nikhil K | last5=Kaul | first5=Sanjana | title=Functional genomics of apocarotenoids in saffron: insights from chemistry, molecular biology and therapeutic applications (Review)| journal=Briefings in Functional Genomics | volume=16 | issue=6 | date=28 March 2017 | issn=2041-2649 | doi=10.1093/bfgp/elx003 | pages=336–347|pmid=28369196}}</ref><ref name=Amanpour/> Saffron also contains nonvolatile [[phytochemical]]s,{{Sfn|Abdullaev|2002|p=1}} including the [[carotenoid]]s [[zeaxanthin]], [[lycopene]], various α- and β-[[carotene]]s, as well as [[crocetin]] and its [[glycoside]] crocein, which are the most biologically active components.<ref name=dhar/><ref name="pmid29134501">{{cite journal | vauthors=Hosseini A, Razavi BM, Hosseinzadeh H | title=Pharmacokinetic Properties of Saffron and its Active Components | journal=European Journal of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics | volume=43 | issue=4 | pages=383–390 | year=2018 | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0890623820302926 | doi=10.1007/s13318-017-0449-3 | pmid=29134501| s2cid=23836415 }}</ref> Because crocetin is smaller and more water-soluble than the other carotenoids, it is more rapidly absorbed.<ref name="pmid29134501" />

The yellow-orange colour of saffron is primarily the result of α-crocin.<ref name=dhar/> This [[crocin]] is trans-[[crocetin]] di-(β-D-[[gentiobiose|gentiobiosyl]]) [[ester]]; it bears the [[IUPAC nomenclature|systematic (IUPAC) name]] 8,8-diapo-8,8-carotenoic acid. This means that the crocin underlying saffron's aroma is a digentiobiose ester of the carotenoid crocetin.{{Sfn|Abdullaev|2002|p=1}} Crocins themselves are a series of [[hydrophile|hydrophilic]] carotenoids that are either [[glycosyl|monoglycosyl]] or diglycosyl [[polyene]] esters of crocetin.{{Sfn|Abdullaev|2002|p=1}} Crocetin is a [[conjugated system|conjugated]] polyene [[carboxylic acid|dicarboxylic acid]] that is [[Hydrophobe|hydrophobic]], and thus oil-soluble. When crocetin is [[esterification|esterified]] with two water-soluble gentiobioses, which are [[carbohydrate|sugars]], a product results that is itself water-soluble. The resultant α-crocin is a carotenoid pigment that may make up more than 10% of dry saffron's mass. The two esterified gentiobioses make α-crocin ideal for colouring water-based and non-fatty foods such as rice dishes.{{Sfn|McGee|2004|p=422}}

The bitter [[glucoside]] [[picrocrocin]] is responsible for saffron's [[pungency|pungent flavour]].<ref name=dhar/> Picrocrocin ([[chemical formula]]: {{Chem2|C16H26O7}}; systematic name: 4-(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-2,6,6-trimethylcyclohex-1-ene-1-carbaldehyde) is a union of an [[aldehyde]] sub-molecule known as [[safranal]] (systematic name: 2,6,6-trimethylcyclohexa-1,3-diene-1-carbaldehyde) and a carbohydrate. It has insecticidal and pesticidal properties, and may comprise up to 4% of dry saffron. Picrocrocin is a truncated version of the carotenoid [[zeaxanthin]] that is produced via [[redox|oxidative]] cleavage, and is the [[glycoside]] of the [[terpene]] [[aldehyde]] safranal.{{Sfn|Leffingwell}}

When saffron is dried after its harvest, the heat, combined with enzymatic action, splits picrocrocin to yield [[Monosaccharide#Isomerism|D]]–[[glucose]] and a free safranal molecule.{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=4}} Safranal, a [[essential oil|volatile]] oil, gives saffron much of its distinctive aroma.{{Sfn|McGee|2004|p=423}}{{Sfn|Dharmananda|2005}} Safranal is less bitter than picrocrocin and may comprise up to 70% of dry saffron's volatile fraction in some samples.{{Sfn|Leffingwell}} A second molecule underlying saffron's aroma is [[Lanierone|2-hydroxy-4,4,6-trimethyl-2,5-cyclohexadien-1-one]], which produces a scent described as saffron, dried hay-like.{{Sfn|Leffingwell}} Chemists find this is the most powerful contributor to saffron's fragrance, despite its presence in a lesser quantity than safranal.{{Sfn|Leffingwell}} Dry saffron is highly sensitive to fluctuating [[pH]] levels, and rapidly breaks down chemically in the presence of light and [[redox|oxidising]] agents. It must, therefore, be stored in air-tight containers to minimise contact with atmospheric oxygen. Saffron is somewhat more resistant to heat.

===Grades and ISO 3632 categories===
[[File:Iran saffron threads.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Red threads and yellow styles from Iran]]
[[File:Safran-Weinviertel Niederreiter 2 Gramm 8285.jpg|thumb|left|upright|High quality red threads from Austrian saffron]]
[[File:Pure Kashmiri saffron pack 08.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Kashmir]]i saffron package]]

Saffron is not all of the same quality and strength. Strength is related to several factors,  including age and the amount of yellow style picked relative to red stigma, as colour and flavour are concentrated in the latter. 

Saffron from [[Iran]], [[Spain]], and [[Kashmir]] is classified into various grades according to the proportion of stigma to style it contains. Grades of Iranian saffron are: ''sargol'' ({{langx|fa|سرگل}}, red stigma tips only, strongest grade), ''pushal'' or ''pushali'' (red stigmas plus some yellow style, lower strength), "bunch" saffron (red stigmas plus large amount of yellow style, presented in a tiny bundle like a miniature wheatsheaf) and ''konge'' (yellow style only, claimed to have aroma but with very little, if any, colouring potential). Grades of Spanish saffron are ''coupé'' (the strongest grade, like Iranian sargol), ''mancha'' (like Iranian pushal), and in order of further decreasing strength ''rio'', ''standard'' and ''sierra'' saffron. The word ''mancha'' in the Spanish classification can have two meanings: a general grade of saffron or a very high quality Spanish-grown saffron from a specific geographical origin. Real Spanish-grown La Mancha saffron has [[Geographical indications and traditional specialities in the European Union#Protected designation of origin (PDO)|PDO]] protected status, which is displayed on the product packaging. Spanish growers fought hard for Protected Status because they felt that imports of Iranian saffron re-packaged in Spain and sold as "Spanish Mancha saffron" were undermining the genuine La Mancha brand. {{Citation needed|date=August 2023}} Similar was the case in Kashmir where imported Iranian saffron is mixed with local saffron and sold as "Kashmir brand" at a higher price.<ref>{{Citation |url=https://www.academia.edu/30720498 |title=Sustainable Saffron (''Crocus sativus'' Kashmirianus) Production: Technological and Policy Interventions for Kashmir |author1=Amjad Masood Husaini |author2=Azra N. Kamili |author3=M. H. Wani |author4=Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva |author5=G. N. Bhat |editor-last=Husaini |editor-first=Amjad M. |journal=Functional Plant Science & Biotechnology |issn=1749-0472 |volume=4 |issue=2 |publisher=Global Science Books |year=2010 |isbn=978-4-903313-67-2 |location=UK |page=118}}</ref> In Kashmir, saffron is mostly classified into two main categories called ''mongra'' (stigma alone) and ''lachha'' (stigmas attached with parts of the style).<ref>{{Citation |url=https://www.academia.edu/30720498 |title=Saffron (''Crocus sativus'' Kashmirianus) Cultivation in Kashmir: Practices and Problems |author1=Amjad Masood Husaini |author2=Badrul Hassan |author3=Muzaffar Y. Ghani |author4=Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva |author5=Nayar A. Kirmani |editor-last=Husaini |editor-first=Amjad |journal=Functional Plant Science & Biotechnology |issn=1749-0472 |volume=4 |issue=2 |publisher=Global Science Books |year=2010 |isbn=978-4-903313-67-2 |location=UK |page=110}}</ref> Countries producing less saffron do not have specialised words for different grades and may only produce one grade. Artisan producers in Europe and New Zealand have offset their higher labour charges for saffron harvesting by targeting quality, only offering extremely high-grade saffron.

In addition to descriptions based on how the saffron is picked, saffron may be categorised under the international standard [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] 3632 after laboratory measurement of crocin (responsible for saffron's colour), picrocrocin (taste), and safranal (fragrance or aroma) content.{{Sfn|Verma|Middha|2010|p=1–2}} However, often there is no clear grading information on the product packaging and little of the saffron readily available in the UK is labelled with ISO category. This lack of information makes it hard for customers to make informed choices when comparing prices and buying saffron.

Under ISO 3632, determination of non-stigma content ("floral waste content") and other extraneous matter such as inorganic material ("[[Ash (analytical chemistry)|ash]]") are also key. Grading standards are set by the [[International Organization for Standardization]], a federation of national standards bodies. ISO 3632 deals exclusively with saffron and establishes three categories: III (poorest quality), II, and I (finest quality). Formerly there was also category IV, which was below category III. Samples are assigned categories by gauging the spice's crocin and picrocrocin content, revealed by measurements of specific spectrophotometric [[absorbance]]. Safranal is treated slightly differently and rather than there being threshold levels for each category, samples must give a reading of 20–50 for all categories.

These data are measured through [[spectrophotometry]] reports at certified testing laboratories worldwide. Higher absorbances imply greater levels of crocin, picrocrocin and safranal, and thus a greater colouring potential and therefore strength per gram. The absorbance reading of crocin is known as the "colouring strength" of that saffron. Saffron's colouring strength can range from lower than 80 (for all category IV saffron) up to 200 or greater (for category I). The world's finest samples (the selected, most red-maroon, tips of stigmas picked from the finest flowers) receive colouring strengths in excess of 250, making such saffron over three times more powerful than category IV saffron. Market prices for saffron types follow directly from these ISO categories. Sargol and coupé saffron would typically fall into ISO 3632 category I. Pushal and Mancha would probably be assigned to category II. On many saffron packaging labels, neither the ISO 3632 category nor the colouring strength (the measurement of crocin content) is displayed.

However, many growers, traders, and consumers reject such lab test numbers. Some people prefer a more holistic method of sampling batches of threads for taste, aroma, pliability, and other traits in a fashion similar to that practised by experienced [[wine]] tasters.{{Sfn|Hill|2004|p=274}}

===Adulteration===
Despite attempts at quality control and standardisation, an extensive history of saffron [[adulteration]], particularly among the cheapest grades, continues into modern times. Adulteration was first documented in Europe's Middle Ages, when those found selling adulterated saffron in [[Nuremberg]] were executed under the ''Safranschou'' code.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=102–104}} Typical methods include mixing in extraneous substances like [[beetroot]], [[pomegranate]] fibres, red-dyed silk fibres, or the saffron crocus's tasteless and odourless yellow stamens. Other methods included dousing saffron fibres with viscid substances like [[honey]] or vegetable oil to increase their weight. Powdered saffron is more prone to adulteration, with [[turmeric]], [[paprika]], and other powders used as diluting fillers. Adulteration can also consist of selling mislabelled mixes of different saffron grades. Thus, high-grade Kashmiri saffron is often sold and mixed with cheaper Iranian imports; these mixes are then marketed as pure Kashmiri saffron.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/long-reads/kashmirs-saffron-harvest-sees-sharp-decline-4216123.html|title=Kashmir's saffron harvest sees sharp decline |website=Firstpost|date=18 November 2017 |access-date=1 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Rashid|first=Afshan|date=22 September 2018|title=From 35kgs earlier to 1kg yield now, 'successful' Saffron Mission paves way for apples in Pampore|url=https://freepresskashmir.news/2018/09/22/from-35kgs-earlier-to-1kg-yield-now-successful-saffron-mission-paves-way-for-apples-in-pampore/|access-date=1 January 2019|website=Free Press Kashmir|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=4 November 2003 |title=Kashmiri Saffron Producers See Red over Iranian Imports |publisher=[[ABC News (Australia)|Australian Broadcasting Corp.]] |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/1504154 |access-date=29 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Hussain |first=A. |date=28 January 2005 |title=Saffron Industry in Deep Distress |work=BBC News |location=London |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4216493.stm |access-date=15 September 2011}}</ref> [[Safflower]] is a common substitute sometimes sold as saffron. The spice is reportedly counterfeited with [[horse hair]], [[corn silk]], or shredded paper. [[Tartrazine]] or [[sunset yellow]] dyes have been used to colour counterfeit powdered saffron.<ref name=hooker/>

In recent years, saffron adulterated with the colouring extract of [[gardenia]] fruits has been detected in the European market. This form of fraud is difficult to detect due to the presence of [[flavonoids]] and [[crocin]]es in the gardenia-extracts similar to those naturally occurring in saffron. Detection methods have been developed by using [[HPLC]] and [[mass spectrometry]] to determine the presence of [[geniposide]], a compound present in the fruits of gardenia, but not in saffron.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Guijarro-Díez |first1=Miguel |last2=Castro-Puyana |first2=María |last3=Crego |first3=Antonio Luis |last4=Marina |first4=María Luisa |title=Detection of saffron adulteration with gardenia extracts through the determination of geniposide by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry |journal=Journal of Food Composition and Analysis |date=1 January 2017 |volume=55 |pages=30–37 |doi=10.1016/j.jfca.2016.11.004 }}</ref>

===Types===

The various saffron crocus cultivars give rise to thread types that are often regionally distributed and characteristically distinct. Varieties (not varieties in the botanical sense) from Spain, including the tradenames "Spanish Superior" and "Creme", are generally mellower in colour, flavour, and aroma; they are graded by government-imposed standards. Italian varieties are slightly more potent than Spanish. Greek saffron produced in the town of [[Krokos]] is [[Protected designation of origin|PDO]] protected due to its particularly high-quality colour and strong flavour.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/food-farming-fisheries/food-safety-and-quality/certification/quality-labels/eu-quality-food-and-drink/krokos-kozanis|title=Krokos Kozanis PDO |last=Bishop |first=Stephen|date=26 April 2018|website=European Commission|access-date=16 November 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181117024010/https://ec.europa.eu/info/food-farming-fisheries/food-safety-and-quality/certification/quality-labels/eu-quality-food-and-drink/krokos-kozanis |archive-date= Nov 17, 2018 }}</ref> Various "boutique" crops are available from New Zealand, France, Switzerland, England, the United States, and other countries—some of them organically grown. In the US, Pennsylvania Dutch saffron—known for its "earthy" notes—is produced in small quantities.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=143}}{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=201}}

Consumers may regard certain cultivars as "premium" quality. The "Aquila" saffron, or ''zafferano dell'Aquila'', is defined by high safranal and crocin content, distinctive thread shape, unusually pungent aroma, and intense colour; it is grown exclusively on eight hectares in the Navelli Valley of Italy's [[Abruzzo]] region, near [[L'Aquila]]. It was first introduced to Italy by a Dominican friar from inquisition-era Spain.{{when|date=October 2016}} But the biggest saffron cultivation in Italy is in [[San Gavino Monreale]], Sardinia, where it is grown on 40 hectares, representing 60% of Italian production; it too has unusually high crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal content.

Another is the "Mongra" or "Lacha" saffron of Kashmir (''Crocus sativus'' 'Cashmirianus'), which is among the most difficult for consumers to obtain.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vlahova |first1=Veselka |title=Saffron (''Crocus Sativus'') as an Alternative Crop in Sustainable Agricultural Systems. a Review |journal=Scientific Papers Series Management, Economic Engineering in Agriculture and Rural Development |date=2022 |volume=22 |issue=2 |page=778 |url=https://managementjournal.usamv.ro/pdf/vol.22_2/Art91.pdf |access-date=22 September 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922221935/https://managementjournal.usamv.ro/pdf/vol.22_2/Art91.pdf |archive-date=22 September 2022 }}</ref> Repeated droughts, blights, and crop failures in Kashmir combined with an Indian export ban, contribute to its prohibitive overseas prices. Kashmiri saffron is recognizable by its dark maroon-purple hue, making it among the world's darkest.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hassan |first=Firdous |date=2020-02-19 |title=Farmers Pitch For GI Tag For Kashmiri Saffron, World's Most Expensive Spice |url=https://www.indiaspend.com/farmers-pitch-for-gi-tag-for-kashmiri-saffron-worlds-most-expensive-spice/ |access-date=2022-03-11 |website=IndiaSpend |language=en}}</ref> In 2020, [[Kashmir Valley]] saffron was certified with a [[geographical indication]] from the Government of India.<ref>{{Cite web|date=25 July 2020|title=Kashmir's saffron gets GI tag|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/kashmir-s-saffron-gets-gi-tag/story-N7VfEu6mG5vlti0lHr6MpN.html|access-date=27 July 2020|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref>