Editing Roger B. Chaffee (section)

== NASA career ==

=== Selection ===
{{Quote box|The world itself looks cleaner and so much more beautiful. Maybe we can make it that way—the way God intended it to be—by giving everybody that new perspective from out in space.|width=20%|source=—Roger Chaffee<ref name="newmexico">{{cite web|url=http://www.nmspacemuseum.org/halloffame/detail.php?id=73|title=Named Pilot of the Apollo 1 crew.|publisher=New Mexico Museum of Space History|access-date=June 5, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308200304/http://nmspacemuseum.org/halloffame/detail.php?id=73|archive-date=March 8, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
In August 1962, Chaffee confided in his family that he had submitted an application for the [[NASA]] [[astronaut]] training program, and informed his superiors of his desire to train as a [[test pilot]] for astronaut status.{{sfn|Chrysler|Chaffee|1968|p=78}} In mid-1962, he was accepted in the initial pool of 1,800 applicants for the [[NASA Astronaut Group 3|third group of NASA astronauts]].<ref name="history.nasa.gov" />{{sfn|Chrysler|Chaffee|1968|p=79}} After his naval tour was over, and he had racked up over 1,800 hours of flying time, the Navy offered him the opportunity to continue work on his master's degree.{{sfn|Chrysler|Chaffee|1968|p=79}} In January 1963, he entered the U.S. [[Air Force Institute of Technology]] (AFIT) at [[Wright-Patterson Air Force Base]] in [[Dayton, Ohio]], of [[Air University (United States Air Force)|Air University]], to work on his [[Master of Science]] degree in [[reliability engineering]].<ref name="chaffee space" />

While at AFIT, Chaffee continued participating in astronaut candidate testing as the pool of candidates dropped to 271 in mid-1963. It was noted during testing that he had a very small lung capacity but he used it better than most people with greater capacity.{{sfn|Chrysler|Chaffee|1968|p=82}} On his return from a hunting trip to [[Fairborn, Ohio]], on October 14, 1963, he found a message from NASA in [[Houston]], Texas.{{sfn|Chrysler|Chaffee|1968|p=82}} He called them back, and discovered he had been chosen as an astronaut.<ref name="history.nasa.gov" /> On October 18, 1963, it was officially announced that he was one of fourteen chosen for NASA's third group of astronauts.<ref name="astronautsmemorial" /> He said, "I was very pleased with the appointment. I've always wanted to fly and perform adventurous flying tasks all my life. Ever since the first [[Mercury Seven|seven Mercury astronauts]] were named, I've been keeping my studies up."{{sfn|Chrysler|Chaffee|1968|p=85}}

=== Training ===
[[File:Apollo 1 astronauts Edward H. White II and Roger B. Chaffee during water egress training.jpg|thumb|alt=The Apollo spacecraft and orange rafts float in a pool, surrounded by divers|Chaffee (sitting on hatch sill) during water egress training for Apollo 1]]
Phase one of training for the third group of astronauts began in 1964 in lecture halls. Lectures in several fields were supplemented with trips to locations with geological significance so the astronauts gained hands-on experience. As well as piloting the spacecraft, the astronauts were to perform scientific experiments and measurements on the Moon. The astronauts traveled to the [[Grand Canyon]] to learn about geography and to Alaska, Iceland, and Hawaii to learn about rock formations and lava flows.<ref name="history.nasa.gov" />

The second phase was contingency training, which focused on astronauts learning the skills required to survive if the landing did not occur where planned. The group started their training by being dropped off in the middle of the jungle in Panama. They performed the survival training in pairs, carrying only their parachutes and survival kits. Chaffee, with help from his Boy Scout training, foraged for enough food to survive during the three-day training mission. Following the jungle training, the astronauts traveled to an entirely different environment: the desert of [[Reno, Nevada]]. For clothing, the astronauts had only long underwear, shoes, and robes they manufactured from their parachutes. Lizards and snakes were the main source of food, and the astronauts used their parachutes as makeshift tents for shelter for the two days of desert training.<ref name="history.nasa.gov" />

The third and final phase was operational training for the astronauts. This focused on giving them hands-on experience using the instruments and equipment required during their spaceflight. They received training in the effects of [[microgravity]] and rapid [[acceleration]]. The astronauts spent time in simulators, aboard cargo planes that simulated weightlessness, underwater to practice [[extravehicular activity|extravehicular activities]] (EVAs), and on visits to manufacturing plants to check on the progress of the hardware.<ref name="history.nasa.gov" />

=== Project Gemini ===
[[File:Roger B. Chaffee at a console in the Mission Control Center, Houston, during the Gemini-Titan 3 flight.jpg|thumb|Chaffee at the consoles in Mission Control during the [[Gemini 3]] mission|alt=refer to caption]]
Every astronaut was required to have a specialty, and Chaffee's specialty was communications. He focused on the Deep Space Instrumentation Facility (DSIF), which the astronauts needed for navigation in space.{{sfn|Burgess|Doolan|Vis|2008|p=142}}

At the [[Manned Spacecraft Center]] in Houston, Chaffee served as [[capsule communicator]] (CAPCOM) in March 1965 for [[Gemini 3]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/gemini/gemini-3/gemini-3.html|title=Gemini 3 (3)|access-date=September 20, 2016|date=August 25, 2000|publisher=Kennedy Space Center: Science, Technology, and Engineering|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304102608/http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/gemini/gemini-3/gemini-3.html|archive-date=March 4, 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> Later that year, he was CAPCOM, along with [[Gus Grissom|Virgil "Gus" Grissom]] and [[Eugene Cernan]], for the [[Gemini 4]] mission,{{sfn|Burgess|Doolan|Vis|2008|p=142}} in which [[Ed White (astronaut)|Ed White]] performed the first spacewalk by an American.<ref name="astronautsmemorial" /><ref name="history.nasa.gov" /> As CAPCOM, Chaffee relayed information between the crew members and the Director of Flight Operations, [[Christopher C. Kraft Jr.|Chris Kraft]].<ref name="history.nasa.gov" /> He never got a seat on a [[Project Gemini|Gemini]] mission, but was assigned to work on flight control, communications, instrumentation, and attitude and translation control systems in the [[Apollo program]].<ref name="chaffee space" /> During this time, along with Grissom, he also flew chase planes at an altitude of between {{convert|30,000|and|50,000|ft}} to take motion pictures of the launch of an uncrewed [[Saturn 1B]] rocket.<ref name="history.nasa.gov" />{{sfn|Chrysler|Chaffee|1968|p=108}}

=== Apollo program ===
[[File:Apollo1-Crew 01.jpg|thumb|alt=refer to caption|[[Apollo 1]] crew, [[Gus Grissom|Grissom]], [[Ed White (astronaut)|White]], and Chaffee]]
Chaffee received his first spaceflight assignment in January 1966, when he was selected for the first crewed Apollo-Saturn flight, AS-204. At the time, he was the youngest American astronaut to be selected for a mission.<ref name="Teitel" />{{sfn|Burgess|Doolan|Vis|2008|pp=143–44}} Joining Command Pilot Grissom and Senior Pilot White, he replaced the injured [[Donn F. Eisele]] in the third-ranked pilot position.<ref name="history.nasa.gov" /> Eisele required surgery for a dislocated shoulder, which he sustained aboard the [[reduced gravity aircraft|KC-135 weightlessness training aircraft]]. He was reassigned to a second Apollo crew, commanded by [[Wally Schirra]].<ref name="Teitel">{{cite magazine|url=http://www.popsci.com/blog-network/vintage-space/how-donn-eisele-became-whatshisname-command-module-pilot-apollo-7|title=How Donn Eisele Became "Whatshisname," the Command Module Pilot of Apollo 7|last=Teitel|first=Amy Shira|magazine=Popular Science|date=December 4, 2013|access-date=June 5, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150422020339/http://www.popsci.com/blog-network/vintage-space/how-donn-eisele-became-whatshisname-command-module-pilot-apollo-7|archive-date=April 22, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

The crew announcement was made public on March 21, 1966. The two-week flight of Apollo{{nbsp}}1 was to test the spacecraft systems and the control and ground tracking facilities.<ref name="history.nasa.gov" /> While Chaffee had monitored the manufacture of the [[Gemini (spacecraft)|Gemini spacecraft]], he had not witnessed the building of the Apollo spacecraft. Three days after being selected for the Apollo{{nbsp}}1 crew, he flew to the [[North American Aviation]] Plant in [[Downey, California]], to see it.<ref name="history.nasa.gov" />

Later in April, the crew traveled to [[Chapel Hill, North Carolina]], to study stars that were programmed into their flight computer.{{sfn|Chrysler|Chaffee|1968|p=114}} In October, the six crewmembers planned to test the spacecraft in sea level and altitude conditions. The failure of an oxygen regulator prevented them from performing the vacuum test, but they managed to complete the sea level test. They also performed egress tests, where capsule simulators were dropped in the Gulf of Mexico under various conditions and the crew had to exit the spacecraft.{{sfn|Chrysler|Chaffee|1968|p=116}} The crew was able to spend time with their families at Christmas. Chaffee entered a local Christmas decoration contest and he received first prize.<ref name="history.nasa.gov" /> Four Purdue astronauts were requested to attend the [[1967 Rose Bowl|Rose Bowl]] as guests of honor; Grissom, [[Gene Cernan]], [[Neil Armstrong]], and Chaffee attended the game on January 2, 1967.{{sfn|Chrysler|Chaffee|1968|p=118}} Progress on pre-mission activities was nearing completion; NASA announced on Monday, January 23, that February 21 was the target launch date.{{sfn|Chrysler|Chaffee|1968|p=117}}<ref name=sr3mn>{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=baxWAAAAIBAJ&sjid=vOgDAAAAIBAJ&pg=7390%2C2292235 |work=Spokesman-Review |location=(Spokane, Washington) |agency=Associated Press |title=3-man Apollo flight set |date=January 24, 1967 |page=2}}</ref><ref name=erg2vtns>{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=G6pVAAAAIBAJ&sjid=J-EDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5195%2C5099686 |work=Eugene Register-Guard |location=(Oregon) |agency=UPI |title=2 veterans to open Apollo series |date=January 24, 1967 |page=6A}}</ref> The primary and backup crews moved back to the Cape for the last few weeks of training. They had their own living quarters, a private waiter and chef, and gymnasium to remain fit.{{sfn|Chrysler|Chaffee|1968|p=117}}

[[File:Apollo 1 fire.jpg|thumb|alt=Interior of burned capsule|Charred remains of the Apollo 1 [[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command Module]], in which Chaffee was killed along with Grissom and White]]
On Friday, January 27, Grissom, White, and Chaffee were participating in a "plugs-out" countdown demonstration test at [[Cape Kennedy]] in preparation for the planned February 21 launch.<ref name=sdcftblz>{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=NFdYAAAAIBAJ&sjid=tfcDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6549%2C3436454 |work=Spokane Daily Chronicle |location=(Washington) |agency=Associated Press |title=Space chief describes fatal blaze |date=January 28, 1967 |page=1}}</ref><ref name=shoutd>{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=HqpVAAAAIBAJ&sjid=J-EDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6208%2C5843036 |work=Eugene Register-Guard |location=(Oregon) |agency=UPI |title=Astronaut shouted warning as fire flashed in capsule |date=January 28, 1967 |page=1A}}</ref> Chaffee was sitting at the right side of the cabin.<ref name="history.nasa.gov" /> His main role was to maintain communications with the [[blockhouse]]. A momentary power surge was detected at 23:30:55 [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]] (6:30 pm [[Eastern Time Zone|EST]]), which was believed to accompany an electrical short in equipment located on the lower left side of the cabin, the presumed ignition source for the fire.{{sfn|Thompson|Borman|Faget|White|1967|p=5-10}}<!-- Report page numbers are hyphenated. This is "page 5-10", NOT "pages 5–10" --> At 23:31:04 GMT, a voice was heard declaring, "[We]'ve got a fire in the cockpit."<ref name=shoutd/> Most investigative listeners believe that voice was Chaffee's.{{sfn|Thompson|Borman|Faget|White|1967|p=5-8}}

Assigned emergency roles called for Grissom, in the left-hand seat, to open the cabin pressure vent valve, after which White in the center seat was to open the [[plug door]] hatch, while Chaffee in the right-hand seat was to maintain communications.{{sfn|Thompson|Borman|Faget|White|1967|pp=3-49 & 4-7}} Grissom was prevented from opening the valve by the intensity of the fire, which started in that region and spread from left to right. Despite this, White removed his restraints and apparently tried in vain to open the hatch, which was held closed by the cabin pressure.{{sfn|Thompson|Borman|Faget|White|1967|p=4-7}} The increasing pressure finally burst the inner cabin wall on the right-hand side at 23:31:19 GMT. After approximately thirty seconds of being fed by a cabin atmosphere of pure [[oxygen]] at pressures of {{convert|16.7|to|29|psi|abbr=on}}, and now fed by nitrogen-buffered ambient air, the primary fire decreased in intensity and started producing large amounts of smoke,{{sfn|Thompson|Borman|Faget|White|1967|pp=5-3 & 5-4}} which killed the astronauts. Chaffee lost consciousness because of a lack of oxygen which sent him into [[cardiac arrest]]. He died from [[asphyxia]] due to the toxic gases from the fire, with burns contributing to his death.{{sfn|Thompson|Borman|Faget|White|1967|pp=5-9 & 6-1}}

Failed oxygen and [[ethylene glycol]] pipes near the fire's origin point continued burning an intense secondary fire which melted through the cabin floor.{{sfn|Thompson|Borman|Faget|White|1967|p=5-4}} By the time firefighters were able to open the hatch, the fire had extinguished itself. The back of Chaffee's couch was found in the horizontal position, with the lower portion angled towards the floor. His helmet was closed and locked, his restraints were undone, and the hoses and electrical connections to the suit remained connected.{{sfn|Thompson|Borman|Faget|White|1967|p=4-7}} As he was farthest from the origin of the fire, he suffered the least burn and suit damage.{{sfn|Thompson|Borman|Faget|White|1967|p=5-3}}

=== Aftermath ===
[[File:GrissomChaffeeGrave.jpg|thumb|alt=Grissom and Chaffee headstones with a wreath between them|Gus Grissom's and Roger Chaffee's headstones during the NASA Day of Remembrance ceremony in 2013]]

Shortly after the AS-204 fire in 1967, NASA Associate Administrator for Manned Spaceflight [[George Mueller (NASA)|George Mueller]] announced the mission would be officially designated as Apollo 1.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/missions/apollo1.html|title=Apollo 1|date=June 14, 2012|access-date=September 19, 2016|publisher=NASA|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927151858/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/missions/apollo1.html|archive-date=September 27, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/apollo-program/orbital-missions/apollo1.cfm|title=Apollo 1 (AS-204)|access-date=July 5, 2017|publisher=Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223105828/https://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/apollo-program/orbital-missions/apollo1.cfm|archive-date=February 23, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> The capsule underwent a significant redesign as a result of the disaster. The atmosphere in the cabin was changed from 100% oxygen to a 60% oxygen and 40% nitrogen environment at launch. The astronauts' spacesuits, originally made of [[nylon]], were changed to [[beta cloth]], a non-flammable, highly melt-resistant fabric woven from [[fiberglass]] and coated with [[Teflon]]. There were other changes, including replacing flammable cabin materials with self-extinguishing ones, and covering plumbing and wiring with protective insulation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch9-4.html|title=The Slow Recovery|last1=Brooks|first1=Courtney|last2=Grimwood|first2=James|last3=Swenson|first3=Loyd|date=1979|publisher=NASA|access-date= July 9, 2017|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161106010826/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch9-4.html|archive-date= November 6, 2016|url-status= live}}</ref>

Chaffee and Grissom were buried in [[Arlington National Cemetery]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23360165/the_daily_messenger/|title=Grissom, Chaffee in Arlington Burial|last1=Corddry|first1=Charles W.|newspaper=The Daily Messenger|date=January 31, 1967|page=1|via=[[Newspapers.com]]|location=Canandaigua, New York|agency=UPI|access-date=September 2, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180902084520/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23360165/the_daily_messenger/|archive-date=September 2, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://ancexplorer.army.mil/publicwmv/#/arlington-national/search/results/1/CgdjaGFmZmVlEgVyb2dlchoBYg--/ |title=Burial Detail: Chaffee, Roger B. (Section 3, Grave 2502-F)  |work= ANC Explorer|publisher=Arlington National Cemetery |id=(Official website)}}</ref> while White was buried at [[West Point Cemetery]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23360165/the_daily_messenger/|title=West Point Rites Held for Ed White|last1=Quigg|first1=H. G.|newspaper=The Daily Messenger|date=January 31, 1967|page=1|via=Newspapers.com|location=Canandaigua, New York|agency=UPI|access-date=September 2, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180902084520/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23360165/the_daily_messenger/|archive-date=September 2, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Chaffee's widow received $100,000 from the life insurance portion of the contract the astronauts signed with two publishing firms so they would have exclusive rights to stories and photographs of the astronauts and their families. She also received $16,250 per year for the life of the contract.<ref>{{cite news|title=Widows Will Get $100,000 From Life Insurance|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/12155840/apollo_1_as204_widows_receive/|date=January 29, 1967|newspaper=[[Bridgeport Sunday Post]]|via=Newspapers.com|access-date=July 5, 2017|page=3|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170812055615/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/12155840/apollo_1_as204_widows_receive/|archive-date=August 12, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>