Editing Richard II of England (section)

== Later reign ==
=== A fragile peace ===
[[File:Silver halfpenny of (Richard II YORYM 1980 1578) obverse.jpg|thumb|Silver half penny of Richard II, [[York Museums Trust]]]]
Richard gradually re-established royal authority in the months after the deliberations of the Merciless Parliament. The aggressive foreign policy of the Lords Appellant failed when their efforts to build a wide, anti-French coalition came to nothing, and the north of England fell victim to a [[Battle of Otterburn|Scottish incursion]].<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;199.</ref> Richard was now over twenty-one years old and could with confidence claim the right to govern in his own name.<ref name="S203-4">Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;203–204.</ref> Furthermore, John of Gaunt returned to England in 1389 and settled his differences with the King, after which the old statesman acted as a moderating influence on English politics.<ref>Harriss (2005), p.&nbsp;469.</ref> Richard assumed full control of the government on 3 May 1389, claiming that the difficulties of the past years had been due solely to bad councillors. He outlined a foreign policy that reversed the actions of the appellants by seeking peace and reconciliation with France, and promised to lessen the burden of taxation on the people significantly.<ref name="S203-4"/> Richard ruled peacefully for the next eight years, having reconciled with his former adversaries.<ref name="Tuck"/> Still, later events would show that he had not forgotten the indignities he perceived.<ref>Harriss (2005), p.&nbsp;468.</ref> In particular, the execution of his former teacher Sir Simon de Burley was an insult not easily forgotten.<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;367.</ref>

[[File:Isabela richard2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Richard and [[Isabella of Valois|Isabella]] on their wedding day in 1396. She was six – he was 29.]]

With national stability secured, Richard began negotiating a permanent peace with France. A proposal put forward in 1393 would have greatly expanded the territory of [[Duchy of Aquitaine|Aquitaine]] possessed by the English Crown. However, the plan failed because it included a requirement that the English king pay [[homage (feudal)|homage]] to the King of France—a condition that proved unacceptable to the English public.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;215–225.</ref> Instead, in 1396, a truce was agreed to, which was to last 28 years.<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;227.</ref> As part of the truce, Richard agreed to marry [[Isabella of Valois]], daughter of [[Charles VI of France]], when she came of age. There were some misgivings about the betrothal, in particular, because the princess was then only six years old and thus would not be able to produce an heir to the throne of England for many years.{{Efn|As it turned out, she never did produce an heir: just four years later, Richard was dead.<ref>McKisack (1959), p.&nbsp;476.</ref>}}

Although Richard sought peace with France, he took a different approach to the situation in Ireland. The English [[Lordship of Ireland|lordships in Ireland]] were in danger of being overrun by the Gaelic Irish kingdoms, and the [[Normans in Ireland|Anglo-Irish]] lords were pleading for the King to intervene.<ref>Tuck (1985), p.&nbsp;204.</ref> In the autumn of 1394, Richard left for Ireland, where he remained until May 1395. His army of more than 8,000 men was the largest force brought to the island during the late Middle Ages.<ref>Harriss (2005), p.&nbsp;511.</ref> The invasion was a success, and a number of Irish chieftains submitted to English overlordship.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;279–281.</ref> It was one of the most successful achievements of Richard's reign, and strengthened his support at home, although the consolidation of the English position in Ireland proved to be short-lived.<ref name="Tuck"/>
[[File:Royal Arms of England (1395-1399).svg|thumb|In 1395 Richard II adopted the [[attributed arms]] of King [[Edward the Confessor]] and [[Impalement (heraldry)|impaling]] the royal arms of England, denoting a mystical union.]]

=== Second crisis of 1397–1399 ===
The period that historians refer to as the "tyranny" of Richard II began towards the end of the 1390s.<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;203.</ref> The King had Gloucester, Arundel and Warwick arrested in July 1397. The timing of these arrests and Richard's motivation are not entirely clear. Although one chronicle suggested that a plot was being planned against the King, there is no evidence that this was the case.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;371–375.</ref> It is more likely that Richard had simply come to feel strong enough to safely retaliate against these three men for their role in events of 1386–1388 and eliminate them as threats to his power.<ref>Harriss (2005), p.&nbsp;479.</ref>

Arundel was the first of the three to be brought to trial, at the parliament of September 1397. After a heated quarrel with the King, he was condemned and executed.<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;378.</ref> Gloucester was being held prisoner by the Earl of Nottingham at Calais while awaiting his trial. As the time for the trial drew near, Nottingham brought news that Gloucester was dead. It is thought likely that the King had ordered him to be killed to avoid the disgrace of executing a prince of the blood.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;378–379.</ref>

Warwick was also condemned to death, but his life was spared and his sentence reduced to life imprisonment. Arundel's brother [[Thomas Arundel]], the Archbishop of Canterbury, was exiled for life.<ref>Tuck (1985), p.&nbsp;210.</ref> Richard then took his persecution of adversaries to the localities. While recruiting [[retinue|retainers]] for himself in various counties, he prosecuted local men who had been loyal to the appellants. The fines levied on these men brought great revenues to the crown, although contemporary chroniclers raised questions about the legality of the proceedings.<ref name="Tuck"/>
[[File:Thomas of Woodstock.jpg|thumb|upright=0.81|Murder of [[Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester|Thomas of Woodstock]] in [[Calais]] in 1397]]

[[File:Johnofgaunt.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[John of Gaunt]] had been at the centre of English politics for over thirty years, and his death in 1399 led to insecurity.]]

These actions were made possible primarily through the collusion of John of Gaunt, but with the support of a large group of other magnates, many of whom were rewarded with new titles, and were disparagingly referred to as Richard's "duketti".<ref name="Saul (2005), p.&nbsp;63.">Saul (2005), p.&nbsp;63.</ref> These included the former Lords Appellant
* [[Henry Bolingbroke, Earl of Derby]], who was made [[Duke of Hereford]], and
* Thomas de Mowbray, Earl of Nottingham, who was created [[Duke of Norfolk]].

Also among them were
* [[John Holland, 1st Duke of Exeter|John Holland]], the King's half-brother, promoted from [[Earl of Huntingdon]] to [[Duke of Exeter]]
* [[Thomas Holland, 1st Duke of Surrey|Thomas Holland]], the King's nephew, promoted from [[Earl of Kent]] to [[Duke of Surrey]]
* [[Edward of Norwich, Earl of Rutland]], the King's cousin, who received Gloucester's French title of [[Duke of Aumale]]
* Gaunt's son [[John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset]], who was made [[Marquess of Somerset]] and [[Marquess of Dorset]]
* [[John Montacute, 3rd Earl of Salisbury]]
* [[Thomas Despenser, 1st Earl of Gloucester|Lord Thomas le Despenser]], who became [[Earl of Gloucester]].{{Efn|John Beaufort was the oldest of John of Gaunt's children with [[Katherine Swynford]]; illegitimate children whom Richard had given legitimate status in 1390. He was made [[Marquess of Dorset]]; [[marquess]] being a relatively new title in England up until this point. Rutland, heir to the [[Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York|Duke of York]], was created [[Duke of Aumale]]. John Montacute had succeeded [[William Montacute, 2nd Earl of Salisbury|his uncle]] as [[Earl of Salisbury]] earlier the same year. Thomas Despenser, the great-grandson of [[Hugh Despenser the Younger]], [[Edward II]]'s favourite who was executed for treason in 1326, was given the forfeited [[earldom of Gloucester]].<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;381–382.</ref>}}
With the forfeited lands of the convicted appellants, the King could reward these men with lands suited to their new ranks.<ref name="M483-4">McKisack (1959), pp.&nbsp;483–484.</ref>

A threat to Richard's authority still existed, however, in the form of the [[House of Lancaster]], represented by John of Gaunt and his son Henry Bolingbroke, Duke of Hereford. The House of Lancaster not only possessed greater wealth than any other family in England, they were of royal descent and, as such, likely candidates to succeed the childless Richard.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;196–197.</ref>

Discord broke out in the inner circles of court in December 1397, when Bolingbroke and Mowbray became embroiled in a quarrel. According to Bolingbroke, Mowbray had claimed that the two, as former Lords Appellant, were next in line for royal retribution. Mowbray vehemently denied these charges, as such a claim would have amounted to treason.<ref name="Saul (2005), p.&nbsp;63."/> A parliamentary committee decided that the two should settle the matter by battle, but at the last moment Richard exiled the two dukes instead: Mowbray for life, Bolingbroke for ten years.<ref>Harriss (2005), p.&nbsp;482.</ref>
[[File:Shrewsbury Abbey - geograph.org.uk - 1708510.jpg|thumb|Shrewsbury thought to be the venue of the Revenge Parliament, which was prorogued in Westminster and moved to Shropshire]]
In 1398 Richard summoned the Parliament of [[Shrewsbury]], often called the Revenge Parliament<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-12 |title=Parliament and the Politics of intimidation in Medieval England - The History of Parliament |url=https://historyofparliament.com/2022/05/12/intimidation-in-medieval-england/ |access-date=2025-02-23 |website=historyofparliament.com |language=en-US}}</ref> and understood to have met in the Abbey of that town,<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/odnb/9780192683120.013.16406 |title=Leighton, William Allport (1805–1889) |date=2017-11-28 |publisher=Oxford University Press |series=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography|doi=10.1093/odnb/9780192683120.013.16406 }}</ref> which declared all the acts of the Merciless Parliament to be null and void, and announced that no restraint could legally be put on the King. It delegated all parliamentary power to a committee of twelve lords and six commoners chosen from the King's friends, making Richard an absolute ruler unbound by the necessity of gathering a Parliament again.<ref>Gardiner, Samuel R. (1916), [http://www.mirrorservice.org/sites/gutenberg.org/2/8/1/5/28157/28157-h/28157-h.htm#chap18sec11 Student's History of England from the Earliest Times to the Death of King Edward VII], vol. I.: B.C. 55–A.D. 1509. Longman's.</ref>

On 3 February 1399, Gaunt died. Rather than allowing Bolingbroke to succeed, Richard extended the term of his exile to life and expropriated his properties.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;403–404.</ref> The King felt safe from Bolingbroke, who was residing in Paris, since the French had little interest in any challenge to Richard and his peace policy.<ref>Saul (2005), p.&nbsp;64.</ref> Richard left the country in May for another expedition in Ireland.<ref>McKisack (1959), p.&nbsp;491.</ref>

=== Court culture ===
[[File:Wilton diptych.jpg|thumb|The [[Wilton Diptych]], showing Richard venerating the Virgin and Child, accompanied by his patron saints: [[Edmund the Martyr]], [[Edward the Confessor]], and [[John the Baptist]]. The angels in the picture wear the [[White Hart]] badge. [[National Gallery]], London.]]
In the last years of Richard's reign, and particularly in the months after the suppression of the appellants in 1397, the King enjoyed a virtual monopoly on power in the country, a relatively uncommon situation in medieval England.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;331–332.</ref> In this period a particular court culture was allowed to emerge, one that differed sharply from that of earlier times. A new form of address developed; where the King previously had been addressed simply as "[[highness]]", now "royal [[majesty]]", or "high majesty" were often used. It was said that on solemn festivals Richard would sit on his throne in the royal hall for hours without speaking, and anyone on whom his eyes fell had to bow his knees to the King.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;340–342.</ref> The inspiration for this new sumptuousness and emphasis on dignity came from the courts on the continent, not only the French and Bohemian courts that had been the homes of Richard's two wives, but also the court that his father had maintained while residing in Aquitaine.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;344–354.</ref>

Richard's approach to kingship was rooted in his strong belief in the [[royal prerogative]], the inspiration of which can be found in his early youth, when his authority was challenged first by the Peasants' Revolts and then by the Lords Appellant.<ref>Harriss (2005), pp.&nbsp;489–490.</ref> Richard rejected the approach his grandfather Edward III had taken to the nobility. Edward's court had been a martial one, based on the interdependence between the king and his most trusted noblemen as military captains.<ref>Harriss (2005), pp.&nbsp;490–491.</ref> In Richard's view, this put a dangerous amount of power in the hands of the baronage. To avoid dependence on the nobility for military recruitment, he pursued a policy of peace towards France.<ref name="S439">Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;439.</ref> At the same time, he developed his own private military retinue, larger than that of any English king before him, and gave them [[livery]] [[heraldic badge|badges]] with his [[White Hart]].<ref>Harriss (2005), p.&nbsp;28.</ref> He was then free to develop a courtly atmosphere in which the king was a distant, venerated figure, and art and culture, rather than warfare, were at the centre.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;332, 346.</ref>