Editing Racism (section)

== Aspects ==
{{Globalize|1=section|2=USA|date=May 2022}}
The ideology underlying racism can manifest in many aspects of social life. Such aspects are described in this section, although the list is not exhaustive.

=== Aversive racism ===
{{main|Aversive racism}}

Aversive racism is a form of implicit racism, in which a person's unconscious negative evaluations of racial or ethnic minorities are realized by a persistent avoidance of interaction with other racial and ethnic groups. As opposed to traditional, overt racism, which is characterized by overt hatred for and explicit discrimination against racial/ethnic minorities, aversive racism is characterized by more complex, [[ambivalence|ambivalent]] expressions and attitudes.<ref name="Gaertner">{{cite book |year=1986 |chapter=The aversive form of racism |pages=61–89 |editor1-first=John F. |editor1-last=Dovidio |editor1-link=John Dovidio |editor2-first=Samuel L. |editor2-last=Gaertner |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/prejudicediscrim0000unse/page/61/mode/2up|title=Prejudice, Discrimination and Racism |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-221425-7}}</ref> Aversive racism is similar in implications to the concept of symbolic or modern racism (described below), which is also a form of implicit, unconscious, or covert attitude which results in unconscious forms of discrimination.

The term was coined by Joel Kovel to describe the subtle racial behaviors of any ethnic or racial group who rationalize their aversion to a particular group by appeal to rules or stereotypes.<ref name="Gaertner" /> People who behave in an aversively racial way may profess egalitarian beliefs, and will often deny their racially motivated behavior; nevertheless they change their behavior when dealing with a member of another race or ethnic group than the one they belong to. The motivation for the change is thought to be implicit or subconscious. Experiments have provided empirical support for the existence of aversive racism. Aversive racism has been shown to have potentially serious implications for decision making in employment, in legal decisions and in helping behavior.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/S0065-2601(04)36001-6 |chapter=Aversive Racism |title=Advances in Experimental Social Psychology |year=2004 |last1=Dovidio |first1=John F. |author1-link=John Dovidio |last2=Gaertner |first2=Samuel L. |isbn=978-0-12-015236-0 |volume=36 |pages=1–52 |editor1-first=James M. |editor1-last=Olson |editor2-first=Mark P. |editor2-last=Zanna |editor2-link=Mark Zanna}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1207/s15327957pspr0901_1 |title=Differences in Helping Whites and Blacks: A Meta-Analysis |year=2005 |last1=Saucier |first1=Donald A. |last2=Miller |first2=Carol T. |last3=Doucet |first3=Nicole |journal=[[Personality and Social Psychology Review]] |volume=9 |pages=2–16 |pmid=15745861 |issue=1 |s2cid=14542705}}</ref>

=== Color blindness ===
{{main|Color blindness (race)}}

In relation to racism, color blindness is the disregard of racial characteristics in [[social interaction]], for example in the rejection of affirmative action, as a way to address the results of past patterns of discrimination. Critics of this attitude argue that by refusing to attend to racial disparities, [[racial color blindness]] in fact unconsciously perpetuates the patterns that produce racial inequality.<ref name="Ansell 2008">{{cite book |last=Ansell |first=Amy E. |editor-last=Schaefer |editor-first=Richard T. |title=Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society |date=2008 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |isbn=978-1-4522-6586-5 |pages=320–322 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=STR1AwAAQBAJ&q=%22color+blindness%22 |chapter=Color Blindness}}</ref>

[[Eduardo Bonilla-Silva]] argues that color blind racism arises from an "abstract [[liberalism]], biologization of culture, naturalization of racial matters, and minimization of racism".<ref name="Bonilla-Silva">{{cite book |last=Bonilla-Silva |first=Eduardo |author-link=Eduardo Bonilla-Silva |title=White Supremacy and Racism in the Post-Civil Rights Era |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc. |year=2001 |pages=137–166 |isbn=978-1-58826-032-1}}</ref> Color blind practices are "subtle, [[institution]]al, and apparently nonracial"<ref name="Bonilla-Silva1">{{cite book |last=Bonilla-Silva |first=Eduardo |author-link=Eduardo Bonilla-Silva |title=Racism without Racists: Color-blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States |year=2003 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location=Lanham |isbn=978-0-7425-1633-5 |pages=2–29 |url=https://archive.org/details/racismwithoutrac0000boni_b6w1 }}{{cbignore}}</ref> because race is explicitly ignored in decision-making. If race is disregarded in predominantly white populations, for example, whiteness becomes the [[norm (social)|normative]] standard, whereas [[people of color]] are [[Othering|othered]], and the racism these individuals experience may be minimized or erased.<ref name="Parker">{{cite book |title=Race Is – Race Isn't: Critical Race Theory and Qualitative Studies in Education |last=Parker |first=Laurence |year=1999 |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=978-0-8133-9069-7 |page=184}}</ref><ref name="Social">{{cite book |title=Our Social World: Introduction to Sociology (Condensed Version) |publisher=Sage |year=2015 |location=Los Angeles |isbn=978-1-4522-7575-8 |first1=Jeanne H. |last1=Ballantine |author1-link=Jeanne Ballantine |first2=Keith A. |last2=Roberts |edition=3rd}}</ref> At an individual level, people with "color blind prejudice" reject racist ideology, but also reject systemic policies intended to fix [[institutional racism]].<ref name="Social" />

=== Cultural ===
{{see also|Cultural racism|Xenophobia}}
Cultural racism manifests as societal beliefs and customs that promote the assumption that the products of a given culture, including the language and traditions of that culture, are superior to those of other cultures. It shares a great deal with [[xenophobia]], which is often characterized by fear of, or aggression toward, members of an [[Ingroups and outgroups|outgroup]] by members of an [[Ingroups and outgroups|ingroup]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=xenophobia - European Commission |url=https://home-affairs.ec.europa.eu/networks/european-migration-network-emn/emn-asylum-and-migration-glossary/glossary/xenophobia_en |access-date=17 March 2024 |website=home-affairs.ec.europa.eu |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240701172343/https://home-affairs.ec.europa.eu/networks/european-migration-network-emn/emn-asylum-and-migration-glossary/glossary/xenophobia_en |archive-date=1 July 2024}}</ref>
In that sense it is also similar to [[Communalism (South Asia)|communalism]] as used in South Asia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kundnani |first=Arun |date=1 October 2002 |title=An Unholy Alliance? Racism, Religion and Communalism |journal=[[Race & Class]] |language=en-US |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=71–80 |doi=10.1177/0306396802044002976 |s2cid=145013667 |issn=0306-3968}}</ref>

Cultural racism exists when there is a widespread acceptance of stereotypes concerning diverse ethnic or population groups.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Cultural racism: Something rotten in the state of Denmark? |journal=[[Social & Cultural Geography]] |doi=10.1080/14649360120047788 |first=Karen |last=Wren |volume=2 |issue=2 |year=2001 |pages=141–162 |s2cid=33883381}}</ref> Whereas racism can be characterised by the belief that one race is inherently superior to another, cultural racism can be characterised by the belief that one culture is inherently superior to another.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.columbia.edu/~lnp3/mydocs/Blaut/racism.htm |title=The Theory of Cultural Racism |journal=[[Antipode (journal)|Antipode: A Radical Journal of Geography]] |volume=24 |issue=4 |year=1992 |pages=289–299 |first=James M. |last=Blaut |author-link=James Morris Blaut |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8330.1992.tb00448.x |bibcode=1992Antip..24..289B |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240213081052/http://www.columbia.edu/~lnp3/mydocs/Blaut/racism.htm |archive-date=13 February 2024}}</ref>

=== Economic ===
{{Further|Criticism of capitalism#Racism|Racial pay gap in the United States|Racial wealth gap in the United States}}
Historical economic or social disparity is alleged to be a form of [[discrimination]] caused by past racism and historical reasons, affecting the present generation through deficits in the formal education and kinds of preparation in previous generations, and through primarily unconscious racist attitudes and actions on members of the general population. Some view that capitalism generally transformed racism depending on local circumstances, but racism is not necessary for capitalism.<ref>[https://doi.org/10.1177/02632764221140780 Conroy, William. "Race, capitalism, and the necessity/contingency debate." Theory, Culture & Society 41.1 (2024): 39-58.]</ref> [[Economic discrimination]] may lead to choices that perpetuate racism. For example, color photographic film was tuned for white skin<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lewis |first1=Sarah |title=The Racial Bias Built Into Photography |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/25/lens/sarah-lewis-racial-bias-photography.html |access-date=4 December 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=15 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240701025727/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/25/lens/sarah-lewis-racial-bias-photography.html |archive-date=1 July 2024}}</ref> as are automatic soap dispensers<ref>{{cite news |last1=Fussell |first1=Sidney |title=Why Can't This Soap Dispenser Identify Dark Skin? |url=https://gizmodo.com/why-cant-this-soap-dispenser-identify-dark-skin-1797931773 |access-date=4 December 2020 |work=[[Gizmodo]] |date=17 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240705061747/https://gizmodo.com/why-cant-this-soap-dispenser-identify-dark-skin-1797931773 |archive-date=5 July 2024}}</ref> and [[facial recognition system]]s.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lohr |first1=Steve |title=Facial Recognition Is Accurate, if You're a White Guy |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/09/technology/facial-recognition-race-artificial-intelligence.html |access-date=4 December 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=9 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240304002448/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/09/technology/facial-recognition-race-artificial-intelligence.html |archive-date=4 March 2024}}</ref>

=== Institutional ===
{{Further|Institutional racism|Structural racism|State racism|Racial profiling|Racism by country}}
[[File:Vivian Malone registering.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|[[African American|African-American]] university student [[Vivian Malone Jones|Vivian Malone]] entering the [[University of Alabama]] in the U.S. to register for classes as one of the first African-American students to attend the institution. Until 1963, the university was [[Racial segregation|racially segregated]] and African-American students were not allowed to attend.]]

[[Institutional racism]] (also known as [[structural racism]], [[state racism]] or systemic racism) is racial discrimination by governments, corporations, religions, or educational institutions or other large organizations with the power to influence the lives of many individuals. [[Stokely Carmichael]] is credited for coining the phrase ''institutional racism'' in the late 1960s. He defined the term as "the collective failure of an organization to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin".<ref>{{citation |first=Richard W. |last=Race |url=http://www.shef.ac.uk/socstudies/Shop/race_article.pdf |title=Analysing ethnic education policy-making in England and Wales |series=Sheffield Online Papers in Social Research |publisher=[[University of Sheffield]] |page=12 |access-date=20 June 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060923102013/http://www.shef.ac.uk/socstudies/Shop/race_article.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2006}}</ref>

[[Maulana Karenga]] argued that racism constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion, and human possibility and that the effects of racism were "the morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among peoples".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Karenga |first1=Maulana |author-link=Maulana Karenga |title=The Ethics of Reparations: Engaging the Holocaust of Enslavement |url=http://www.ncobraonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Karenga-THE-ETHICS-OF-REPARATIONS.pdf |publisher=[[The National Coalition of Blacks for Reparations in America]] (N'COBRA) |access-date=31 January 2017 |date=22–23 June 2001 |archive-date=1 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801090448/http://www.ncobraonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Karenga-THE-ETHICS-OF-REPARATIONS.pdf |url-status=usurped }}</ref>

[[Institutional racism]] refers to racism in terms of a power structure that protects the interests of the dominant culture and actively discriminates against ethnic minorities, not only in terms of individual prejudice or formal discrimination.{{r|Cashmore|Yee}}

=== Othering ===
{{main|Othering}}
Othering is the term used by some to describe a system of discrimination whereby the characteristics of a group are used to distinguish them as separate from the norm.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mountz |first=Alison |date=2009 |title=Key Concepts in Political Geography |publisher=Sage |page=328}}</ref>

Othering plays a fundamental role in the history and continuation of racism. To [[Objectification|objectify]] a culture as something different, exotic or underdeveloped is to generalize that it is not like 'normal' society. Europe's colonial attitude towards the Orientals exemplifies this as it was thought that the East was the opposite of the West; feminine where the West was masculine, weak where the West was strong and traditional where the West was progressive.<ref name="Said, Edward 1978 pp.357">{{cite book |last=Said |first=Edward |author-link=Edward Said |date=1978 |title=Orientalism |title-link=Orientalism (book) |location=New York |publisher=[[Pantheon Books]] |page=357}}</ref> By making these [[generalization]]s and othering the East, Europe was simultaneously defining herself as the norm, further entrenching the gap.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gregory |first=Derek |date=2004 |title=The Colonial Present |publisher=[[Blackwell publishers]] |page=4}}</ref>

Much of the process of othering relies on imagined difference, or the expectation of difference. Spatial difference can be enough to conclude that "we" are "here" and the "others" are over "there".<ref name="Said, Edward 1978 pp.357"/> Imagined differences serve to categorize people into groups and assign them characteristics that suit the imaginer's expectations.{{sfn|Said|1978|p=360}}

=== Racial discrimination ===
{{Main|Racial discrimination}}
Racial discrimination refers to [[discrimination]] against someone on the basis of their race.

=== Racial segregation ===
{{Main|Racial segregation}}
{{external media | width = 210px | float = right | video1 = [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N6LxuFpDIYM James A. White Sr.: The little problem I had renting a house], [[TED (conference)|TED Talks]], 14:20, 20 February 2015 }}
Racial segregation is the separation of humans into [[Race (human categorization)|socially-constructed racial groups]] in daily life. It may apply to activities such as eating in a restaurant, drinking from a water fountain, using a bathroom, attending school, going to the movies, or in the rental or purchase of a home.<ref>''Principles to Guide Housing Policy at the Beginning of the Millennium'', Michael Schill & Susan Wachter, [[Cityscape]]</ref> Segregation is generally outlawed, but may exist through social norms, even when there is no strong individual preference for it, as suggested by [[Thomas Schelling]]'s models of segregation and subsequent work.

=== Supremacism ===
{{Main|Supremacism}}
[[File:1899BalanceCartoon.jpg|thumb|right|In 1899 [[Uncle Sam]] (a personification of the United States) balances his new possessions which are depicted as savage children. The figures are Puerto Rico, Hawaii, Cuba, Philippines and "Ladrones" (the [[Mariana Islands]]).]]

Centuries of [[European colonialism]] in the Americas, Africa and Asia were often justified by [[White supremacy|white supremacist]] attitudes.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Takashi |last1=Fujitani |first2=Geoffrey Miles |last2=White |first3=Lisa |last3=Yoneyama |title=Perilous memories: the Asia-Pacific War(s) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ltm9hv0_4A0C&pg=PA303 |year=2001 |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8223-2564-2 |page=303}}</ref> During the early 20th century, the phrase "[[The White Man's Burden]]" was widely used to justify an [[Imperialism|imperialist]] policy as a noble enterprise.<ref>{{cite book |last=Miller |first=Stuart Creighton |title=Benevolent Assimilation: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903 |date=1984 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-03081-5 |page=5 |quote=...&nbsp;imperialist editors came out in favor of retaining the entire archipelago (using) higher-sounding justifications related to the "white man's burden".}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=In Our Pages: 100, 75 and 50 Years Ago; 1899: Kipling's Plea |newspaper=[[International Herald Tribune]] |date=4 February 1999 |at=p. 6 col 6 |url=https://archive.org/details/InternationalHeraldTribune1999FranceEnglish/Feb%2004%201999%2C%20International%20Herald%20Tribune%2C%20%2336056%2C%20France%20%28en%29/page/n5/mode/1up?view=theater |via=Internet Archive Digital Library}}{{void|comment|also at https://www.nytimes.com/1999/02/04/opinion/04iht-edold.t_10.html (subscription required)}} : Notes that Rudyard Kipling's new poem, "The White Man's Burden", "is regarded as the strongest argument yet published in favor of expansion".</ref> A justification for the policy of conquest and subjugation of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] emanated from the stereotyped perceptions of the indigenous people as "merciless Indian savages", as they are described in the [[United States Declaration of Independence]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Out West |date=2000 |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |page=96}}</ref> Sam Wolfson of ''[[The Guardian]]'' writes that "the declaration's passage has often been cited as an encapsulation of the [[dehumanizing]] attitude toward indigenous Americans that the US was founded on."<ref>{{cite news |title=Facebook labels declaration of independence as 'hate speech' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jul/05/facebook-declaration-of-independence-hate-speech |access-date=7 August 2019 |work=[[The Guardian]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329055724/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jul/05/facebook-declaration-of-independence-hate-speech |archive-date=29 March 2024}}</ref> In an 1890 article about colonial expansion onto Native American land, author [[L. Frank Baum]] wrote: "The Whites, by law of conquest, by justice of civilization, are masters of the American continent, and the best safety of the frontier settlements will be secured by the total annihilation of the few remaining Indians."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.northern.edu/hastingw/baumedts.htm |title=L. Frank Baum's Editorials on the Sioux Nation |access-date=9 December 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071209193251/http://www.northern.edu/hastingw/baumedts.htm |archive-date=9 December 2007}} Full text of both, with commentary by professor A. Waller Hastings</ref> In his ''[[Notes on the State of Virginia]]'', published in 1785, [[Thomas Jefferson]] wrote: "blacks, whether originally a distinct race, or made distinct by time or circumstances, are inferior to the whites in the endowments of both body and mind."<ref>{{cite news |title=Fact check: Quotes from prominent American statesmen on race are accurate |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-factcheck-quotes-statesmen-race-idUSKBN2471YA |date=6 July 2020 |access-date=8 December 2022 |publisher=[[Reuters]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411060303/https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-factcheck-quotes-statesmen-race-idUSKBN2471YA |archive-date=11 April 2023}}</ref> Attitudes of [[black supremacy]], [[Arab supremacy]], and [[Sinocentrism|East Asian supremacy]] also exist.

=== Symbolic/modern ===
{{Main|Symbolic racism}}
[[File:Little Rock integration protest.jpg|thumb|left|A rally against [[Desegregation busing|school integration]] in [[Little Rock, Arkansas]], 1959]]
Some scholars argue that in the US, earlier violent and aggressive forms of racism have evolved into a more subtle form of prejudice in the late 20th century. This new form of racism is sometimes referred to as "modern racism" and it is characterized by outwardly acting unprejudiced while inwardly maintaining prejudiced attitudes, displaying subtle prejudiced behaviors such as actions informed by attributing qualities to others based on racial stereotypes, and evaluating the same behavior differently based on the race of the person being evaluated.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Aronson |first1=E. |last2=Wilson |first2=T. D. |last3=Akert |first3=R. M. |date=2010 |title=Social Psychology |edition=7th |location=New York |publisher=Pearson}}</ref> This view is based on studies of prejudice and discriminatory behavior, where some people will act ambivalently towards black people, with positive reactions in certain, more public contexts, but more negative views and expressions in more private contexts. This ambivalence may also be visible for example in hiring decisions where job candidates that are otherwise positively evaluated may be unconsciously disfavored by employers in the final decision because of their race.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McConahay |first1=J. B. |year=1983 |title=Modern Racism and Modern Discrimination The Effects of Race, Racial Attitudes, and Context on Simulated Hiring Decisions |journal=[[Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin]] |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=551–558 |doi=10.1177/0146167283094004 |s2cid=144674550 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brief |first1=A. P. |last2=Dietz |first2=J. |last3=Cohen |first3=R. R. |last4=Pugh |first4=S. D. |last5=Vaslow |first5=J. B. |year=2000 |title=Just doing business: Modern racism and obedience to authority as explanations for employment discrimination |journal=Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes |volume=81 |issue=1 |pages=72–97 |doi=10.1006/obhd.1999.2867 |pmid=10631069 |citeseerx=10.1.1.201.4044}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=McConahay |first=J. B. |date=1986 |title=Modern racism, ambivalence, and the modern racism scale}}</ref> Some scholars consider modern racism to be characterized by an explicit rejection of stereotypes, combined with resistance to changing structures of discrimination for reasons that are ostensibly non-racial, an ideology that considers opportunity at a purely individual basis denying the relevance of race in determining individual opportunities and the exhibition of indirect forms of [[micro-aggression]] toward and/or avoidance of people of other races.<ref>{{cite journal |author-link=Thomas F. Pettigrew (sociologist) |last=Pettigrew |first=T. F. |date=1989 |title=The nature of modern racism in the United States |journal=Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale}}</ref>

=== Subconscious biases ===
{{Main|Implicit bias#Racial bias}}
Recent research has shown that individuals who consciously claim to reject racism may still exhibit race-based subconscious biases in their decision-making processes. While such "subconscious racial biases" do not fully fit the definition of racism, their impact can be similar, though typically less pronounced, not being explicit, conscious or deliberate.<ref>{{cite news |author=Staff |date=30 March 2015 |url=http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/biases-back-mind-affect-feel-race/ |title=How the biases in the back of your mind affect how you feel about race |work=[[PBS Newshour]] |access-date=9 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418063714/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/race-lab |archive-date=18 April 2023}}</ref>