Editing Race and intelligence (section)

=== Race ===
{{Main|Race (human categorization)|Race and genetics}}
The consensus view among geneticists, biologists and anthropologists is that race is a sociopolitical phenomenon rather than a biological one,<ref name="NASEM-2023">{{Cite book |url=https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/26902/chapter/1 |title=Using Population Descriptors in Genetics and Genomics Research: A New Framework for an Evolving Field (Consensus Study Report) |date=2023 |publisher=[[National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine]] |doi=10.17226/26902 |pmid=36989389 |isbn=978-0-309-70065-8 |quote=In humans, race is a socially constructed designation, a misleading and harmful surrogate for population genetic differences, and has a long history of being incorrectly identified as the major genetic reason for phenotypic differences between groups.}}</ref>{{sfn|Daley|Onwuegbuzie|2011|p=294}}<ref name="Templeton2016">Templeton, A. (2016). EVOLUTION AND NOTIONS OF HUMAN RACE. In Losos J. & Lenski R. (Eds.), ''How Evolution Shapes Our Lives: Essays on Biology and Society'' (pp. 346–361). Princeton; Oxford: Princeton University Press. {{doi|10.2307/j.ctv7h0s6j.26}}. That this view reflects the consensus among American anthropologists is stated in: {{cite journal |last1=Wagner |first1=Jennifer K. |last2=Yu |first2=Joon-Ho |last3=Ifekwunigwe |first3=Jayne O. |last4=Harrell |first4=Tanya M. |last5=Bamshad |first5=Michael J. |last6=Royal |first6=Charmaine D. |date=February 2017 |title=Anthropologists' views on race, ancestry, and genetics |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=162 |issue=2 |pages=318–327 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.23120 |pmc=5299519 |pmid=27874171}} See also: {{cite web |author=[[American Association of Physical Anthropologists]] |date=27 March 2019 |title=AAPA Statement on Race and Racism |url=https://physanth.org/about/position-statements/aapa-statement-race-and-racism-2019/ |access-date=19 June 2020 |website=American Association of Physical Anthropologists |archive-date=25 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125163036/https://physanth.org/about/position-statements/aapa-statement-race-and-racism-2019/ |url-status=live }}</ref> a view supported by considerable genetics research.{{sfn|Smay|Armelagos|2000}}<ref>{{Cite journal |journal=Nature Genetics |date=2004 |volume=36 |issue=11 Suppl |pages=43–47 |author1=Rotimi, Charles N. |title=Are medical and nonmedical uses of large-scale genomic markers conflating genetics and 'race'? |doi=10.1038/ng1439 |quote="Two facts are relevant: (i) as a result of different evolutionary forces, including natural selection, there are geographical patterns of genetic variations that correspond, for the most part, to continental origin; and (ii) observed patterns of geographical differences in genetic information do not correspond to our notion of social identities, including 'race' and 'ethnicity" |pmid=15508002 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The current mainstream view is that race is a social construction based on folk ideologies that construct groups based on social disparities and superficial physical characteristics.<ref>{{harvnb|Schaefer|2008}}</ref> A 2023 consensus report from the [[National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine]] stated: "In humans, race is a socially constructed designation, a misleading and harmful surrogate for population genetic differences, and has a long history of being incorrectly identified as the major genetic reason for phenotypic differences between groups."<ref name="NASEM-2023" />

The concept of human "races" as natural and separate divisions within the human species has also been rejected by the [[American Anthropological Association]]. The official position of the AAA, adopted in 1998, is that advances in scientific knowledge have made it "clear that human populations are not unambiguous, clearly demarcated, biologically distinct groups" and that "any attempt to establish lines of division among biological populations [is] both arbitrary and subjective."<ref name="AAA">{{harvnb|AAA|1998}}</ref> A more recent statement from the [[American Association of Physical Anthropologists]] (2019) declares that "Race does not provide an accurate representation of human biological variation. It was never accurate in the past, and it remains inaccurate when referencing contemporary human populations. Humans are not divided biologically into distinct continental types or racial genetic clusters."<ref>{{Cite web |title=AAPA Statement on Race & Racism |url=https://physanth.org/about/position-statements/aapa-statement-race-and-racism-2019/ |access-date=2020-06-28 |archive-date=2022-01-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125163036/https://physanth.org/about/position-statements/aapa-statement-race-and-racism-2019/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Anthropologists such as [[C. Loring Brace]],<ref name="Brace 2005">{{harvnb|Brace|2005}}</ref> the philosophers Jonathan Kaplan and Rasmus Winther,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kaplan |first1=Jonathan Michael |last2=Winther |first2=Rasmus Grønfeldt |date=2014 |title=Realism, Antirealism, and Conventionalism About Race |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/KAPRAA |journal=[[Philosophy of Science (journal)|Philosophy of Science]] |volume=81 |issue=5 |pages=1039–1052 |doi=10.1086/678314 |s2cid=55148854}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Winther |first=Rasmus Grønfeldt |date=2015 |title=The Genetic Reification of 'Race'?: A Story of Two Mathematical Methods |url=http://philpapers.org/archive/WINTGR.pdf |journal=[[Critical Philosophy of Race]] |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=204–223}}</ref>{{sfnp|Kaplan|Winther|2013}} and the geneticist [[Joseph L. Graves|Joseph Graves]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Graves |first=Joseph |date=7 June 2006 |title=What We Know and What We Don't Know: Human Genetic Variation and the Social Construction of Race |url=http://raceandgenomics.ssrc.org/Graves/ |website=Race and Genomics |access-date=3 December 2023 |archive-date=3 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190603030227/http://raceandgenomics.ssrc.org/Graves/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> have argued that the cluster structure of genetic data is dependent on the initial hypotheses of the researcher and the influence of these hypotheses on the choice of populations to sample. When one samples continental groups, the clusters become continental, but if one had chosen other sampling patterns, the clustering would be different. Weiss and Fullerton have noted that if one sampled only Icelanders, Mayans and Maoris, three distinct clusters would form and all other populations could be described as being clinally composed of admixtures of Maori, Icelandic and Mayan genetic materials.<ref name="evolutionary">{{cite journal |last1=Weiss |first1=K. M. |last2=Fullerton |first2=S. M. |date=2005 |title=Racing around, getting nowhere |journal=Evolutionary Anthropology |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=165–169 |doi=10.1002/evan.20079 |s2cid=84927946}}</ref> Kaplan and Winther conclude that while racial groups are characterized by different allele frequencies, this does not mean that racial classification is a natural taxonomy of the human species, because multiple other genetic patterns can be found in human populations that crosscut racial distinctions. Moreover, the genomic data underdetermines whether one [[Lumpers and splitters|wishes to see subdivisions (i.e., splitters) or a continuum (i.e., lumpers)]]. Under Kaplan and Winther's view, racial groupings are objective social constructions (see Mills 1998<ref>{{cite book |last=Mills |first=C. W. |title=Blackness visible: essays on philosophy and race |date=1988 |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |location=Ithaca, New York |pages=41–66 |chapter=But What Are You Really? The Metaphysics of Race |author-link=C. Wright Mills}}</ref>) that have conventional biological reality only insofar as the categories are chosen and constructed for pragmatic scientific reasons. {{harvp|Sternberg|Grigorenko|Kidd|2005}} argue that the social construction of race derives not from any valid scientific basis but rather "from people's desire to classify."<ref name="Sternberg, Grigorenko & Kidd 2005" />

In studies of human intelligence, race is almost always determined using self-reports rather than analyses of genetic characteristics. According to psychologist David Rowe, self-report is the preferred method for racial classification in studies of racial differences because classification based on genetic markers alone ignore the "cultural, behavioral, sociological, psychological, and epidemiological variables" that distinguish racial groups.<ref name="Rowe 2005">{{harvnb|Rowe|2005}}</ref> Hunt and Carlson disagreed, writing that "Nevertheless, self-identification is a surprisingly reliable guide to genetic composition," citing a study by {{harvp|Tang et al.|2005}}.<ref name="Hunt & Carlson 2007">{{harvnb|Hunt|Carlson|2007}}</ref> Sternberg and Grigorenko disputed Hunt and Carlson's interpretation of Tang's results as supporting the view that racial divisions are biological; rather, "Tang et al.'s point was that ancient geographic ancestry rather than current residence is associated with self-identification and not that such self-identification provides evidence for the existence of biological race."<ref>{{harvnb|Sternberg|Grigorenko|2007}}</ref>