Editing Prejudice (section)

==Types of prejudice==
One can be prejudiced against or have a preconceived notion about someone due to any characteristic they find to be unusual or undesirable. A few commonplace examples of prejudice are those based on someone's race, gender, nationality, social status, sexual orientation, or religious affiliation, and controversies may arise from any given topic.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}}

===Gender identity===
{{Main article| Gender Identity| Transphobia}}
[[Transgender]] and [[Non-binary gender|non-binary]] people can be discriminated against because they identify with a gender that does not align with their [[Sex assignment|assigned sex at birth]]. Refusal to call them by their preferred pronouns, or claims that they are not the gender they identify as, could be considered discrimination, especially if the victim of this discrimination has expressed repetitively what their preferred identity is. {{Citation needed|date=February 2022}}

[[Gender identity]] is now considered a protected category of discrimination. Therefore, severe cases of this discrimination can lead to criminal penalty or [[Prosecutor|prosecution]] in some countries{{Citation needed|date=February 2022}}, and workplaces are required to protect against discrimination based on gender identity. {{Citation needed|date=February 2022}}

====Sexism====
{{Excerpt|Sexism}}

===Nationalism===
{{Main article|Nationalism}}
Nationalism is a sentiment based on common cultural characteristics that binds a population and often produces a policy of national independence or [[separatism]].<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/nationalism "Nationalism"], dictionary.com</ref> It suggests a "shared identity" amongst a nation's people that minimizes differences within the group and emphasizes perceived boundaries between the group and non-members.<ref name="Blackwell, Judith 2003 p31-2">{{cite book |last1=Blackwell |first1=Judith |first2=Murray |last2=Smith |first3=John |last3=Sorenson |title=Culture of Prejudice: Arguments in Critical Social Science |url=https://archive.org/details/cultureofprejudi0000blac |url-access=registration |location=Toronto |publisher=Broadview Press |year=2003 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/cultureofprejudi0000blac/page/31 31–2]|isbn=9781551114903 }}</ref> This leads to the assumption that members of the nation have more in common than they actually do, that they are "culturally unified", even if injustices within the nation based on differences like status and race exist.<ref name="Blackwell, Judith 2003 p31-2"/> During times of conflict between one nation and another, nationalism is controversial since it may function as a buffer for criticism when it comes to the nation's own problems since it makes the nation's own hierarchies and internal conflicts appear to be natural.<ref name="Blackwell, Judith 2003 p31-2"/> It may also serve a way of rallying the people of the nation in support of a particular political goal.<ref name="Blackwell, Judith 2003 p31-2"/> Nationalism usually involves a push for conformity, obedience, and solidarity amongst the nation's people and can result not only in feelings of public responsibility but also in a narrow sense of community due to the exclusion of those who are considered outsiders.<ref name="Blackwell, Judith 2003 p31-2"/> Since the identity of nationalists is linked to their allegiance to the state, the presence of strangers who do not share this allegiance may result in hostility.<ref name="Blackwell, Judith 2003 p31-2"/>

===Classism===
{{Main article|Classism}}
Classism is defined by [[Dictionary.com]] as "a biased or discriminatory attitude on distinctions made between social or economic classes".<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/classism "Classism"], dictionary.com</ref>

Some argue that [[economic inequality]] is an unavoidable aspect of society and the inequality of abilities, so there will always be a ruling class.<ref>Blackwell, Judith, Murray Smith, and John Sorenson. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=zUbvP87QKX0C Culture of Prejudice: Arguments in Critical Social Science]''. Toronto: Broadview Press, 2003. 145. Print.</ref> Some also argue that, even within the most [[Egalitarianism|egalitarian]] societies in history, some form of ranking based on worth-based and worth-based individual status takes place. Therefore, one may believe the existence of social classes is a natural feature of society.<ref name="ReferenceA">Blackwell, Judith, Murray Smith, and John Sorenson. ''Culture of Prejudice: Arguments in Critical Social Science''. Toronto: Broadview Press, 2003. 146. Print.</ref> Hierarchies can also be found in animals such as [[apes]] and other [[primates]].

Others argue the contrary. According to [[Anthropology|anthropological]] evidence, for the majority of the time the human species has been in existence, humans have lived in a manner in which the land and resources were not privately owned, although were common merely among the members of the same kin-based band or tribe.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Also, since it was kin-oriented, when social ranking did occur, it was not antagonistic or hostile like the current class system.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

===Sexual discrimination===
{{Main article|Sexual orientation discrimination|Homophobia}}
Individuals with non-heterosexual sexual attraction, such as [[Homosexuality|homosexuals]] and [[Bisexuality|bisexuals]], may experience hatred from others due to their sexual orientation; a term for such hatred based upon one's sexual orientation is ''[[homophobia]]''. However, more specific words for discrimination directed towards specific sexualities exist under other names, such as ''[[biphobia]]''.<ref name="concept">{{cite journal |last1=Fraïssé |first1=C. |last2=Barrientos |first2=J. |date=November 2016 |title=The concept of homophobia: A psychosocial perspective |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1158136016000116 |journal=Sexologies |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=e65–e69 |doi=10.1016/j.sexol.2016.02.002 |access-date=27 February 2022}}</ref>

Due to what social psychologists call the vividness effect, a tendency to notice only certain distinctive characteristics, the majority population tends to draw conclusions like gays flaunt their sexuality.<ref name="Anderson, Kristin 2010">Anderson, Kristin. ''Benign Bigotry: The Psychology of Subtle Prejudice''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. 198. Print.</ref> Such images may be easily recalled to mind due to their vividness, making it harder to appraise the entire situation.<ref name="Anderson, Kristin 2010"/> The majority population may not only think that homosexuals flaunt their sexuality or are "too gay", but may also erroneously believe that homosexuals are easy to identify and label as being gay or lesbian when compared to others who are not homosexual.<ref>Anderson, Kristin. ''Benign Bigotry: The Psychology of Subtle Prejudice''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. 200. Print.</ref>

The idea of [[heterosexual privilege]] has been known to flourish in society. Research and questionnaires are formulated to fit the majority; i.e., [[Heterosexuality|heterosexuals]]. The status of [[Cultural assimilation|assimilating]] or conforming to heterosexual standards may be referred to as "[[heteronormativity]]", or it may refer to ideology that the primary or only social norm is being heterosexual.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-heterosexual-privilege-definition-examples.html |access-date=2022-06-26 |website=study.com|title=What is Heterosexual Privilege? - Definition & Examples }}</ref>

In the [[Law of the United States|US legal system]], all groups are not always considered equal under the [[law]]. The [[Gay panic defense|gay or queer panic defense]] is a term for defenses or arguments used to defend the accused in court cases, that defense lawyers may use to justify their client's [[hate crime]] against someone that the client thought was LGBT. The controversy comes when [[Criminal defense lawyer|defense lawyers]] use the victim's [[Minority group|minority status]] as an [[Justification and excuse|excuse or justification]] for crimes that were directed against them. This may be seen as an example of [[victim blaming]]. One method of this defense, [[Homosexual panic|homosexual panic disorder]], is to claim that the victim's sexual orientation, body movement patterns (such as their walking patterns or how they dance), or appearance that is associated with a minority sexual orientation provoked a violent reaction in the defendant. This is not a proven disorder, is no longer recognized by the [[DSM-5|DSM]], and, therefore, is not a disorder that is medically recognized, but it is a term to explain certain acts of violence.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Helmers |first1=Matthew T. |title=Death and Discourse: The History of Arguing Against the Homosexual Panic Defense |journal=Law, Culture and the Humanities |date=June 2017 |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=285–301 |doi=10.1177/1743872113479885 |s2cid=147272154 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1743872113479885 |access-date=27 February 2022}}</ref>

Research shows that discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation is a powerful feature of many labor markets. For example, studies show that gay men earn 10–32% less than heterosexual men in the United States, and that there is significant discrimination in hiring on the basis of sexual orientation in many labor markets.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Tilcsik | first1 = A | year = 2011 | title = Pride and Prejudice: Employment Discrimination against Openly Gay Men in the United States | journal = [[American Journal of Sociology]] | volume = 117 | issue = 2| pages = 586–626 | pmid = 22268247 | doi=10.1086/661653| hdl = 1807/34998 | s2cid = 23542996 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>

===Racism===
{{Main article|Racism}}
Racism is defined as the belief that physical characteristics determine cultural traits, and that racial characteristics make some groups superior.<ref name="Blackwell37">Blackwell, Judith, Murray Smith, and John Sorenson. ''Culture of Prejudice: Arguments in Critical Social Science''. Toronto: Broadview Press, 2003. 37–38. Print.</ref> By separating people into [[Racial hierarchy|hierarchies]] based upon their race, it has been argued that unequal treatment among the different groups of people is just and fair due to their [[Genetics|genetic]] differences.<ref name="Blackwell37" /> Racism can occur amongst any group that can be identified based upon physical features or even characteristics of their culture.<ref name="Blackwell37" /> Though people may be lumped together and called a specific race, everyone does not fit neatly into such categories, making it hard to define and describe a race accurately.<ref name="Blackwell37" />

====Scientific racism====
[[Scientific racism]] began to flourish in the eighteenth century and was greatly influenced by [[Charles Darwin]]'s [[evolution]]ary studies, as well as ideas taken from the writings of philosophers like [[Aristotle]]; for example, Aristotle believed in the concept of "[[Natural slavery|natural slaves]]".<ref name="Blackwell37" /> This concept focuses on the necessity of hierarchies and how some people are bound to be on the bottom of the pyramid. Though racism has been a prominent topic in history, there is still debate over whether race actually exists,{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}} making the discussion of race a controversial topic. Even though the concept of race is still being debated, the effects of racism are apparent. Racism and other forms of prejudice can affect a person's behavior, thoughts, and feelings, and social psychologists strive to study these effects.

===Religious discrimination===
{{Main article|Religious discrimination}}

While various religions teach their members to be tolerant of those who are different and to have compassion, throughout history there have been [[Religious war|wars]], [[pogrom]]s and other forms of violence motivated by hatred of religious groups.<ref name="Dovidio, John 2005">[[Dovidio, John]], Peter Glick, and Laurie Rudman. ''On the Nature of Prejudice''. Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2005. 413. Print.</ref>

In the modern world, researchers in western, educated, industrialized, rich and democratic countries have done various studies exploring the relationship between religion and prejudice; thus far, they have received mixed results. A study done with US college students found that those who reported religion to be very influential in their lives seem to have a higher rate of prejudice than those who reported not being religious.<ref name="Dovidio, John 2005"/> Other studies found that religion has a positive effect on people as far as prejudice is concerned.<ref name="Dovidio, John 2005"/> This difference in results may be attributed to the differences in religious practices or religious interpretations amongst the individuals. Those who practice "institutionalized religion", which focuses more on social and political aspects of religious events, are more likely to have an increase in prejudice.<ref name="ReferenceB">Dovidio, John, Peter Glick, and Laurie Rudman. ''On the Nature of Prejudice''. Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2005. 414. Print.</ref> Those who practice "interiorized religion", in which believers devote themselves to their beliefs, are most likely to have a decrease in prejudice.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>

===Linguistic discrimination===
{{Main article|Linguistic discrimination}}

Individuals or groups may be treated unfairly based solely on their use of language. This use of language may include the individual's [[native language]] or other characteristics of the person's speech, such as an [[accent (sociolinguistics)|accent]] or [[dialect]], the size of [[vocabulary]] (whether the person uses complex and varied words), and [[syntax]]. It may also involve a person's ability or inability to use one language instead of another. {{Citation needed|date=February 2022}}

In the mid-1980s, [[linguistics|linguist]] [[Tove Skutnabb-Kangas]] captured this idea of discrimination based on language as the concept of linguicism. Kangas defined linguicism as the ideologies and structures used to "legitimate, effectuate, and reproduce unequal division of power and resources (both material and non-material) between groups which are defined on the basis of language".<ref>Quoted in Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove, and Phillipson, Robert, {{"'}}Mother Tongue': The Theoretical and Sociopolitical Construction of a Concept". In Ammon, Ulrich (ed.) (1989), ''Status and Function of Languages and Language Varieties'', p. 455. Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter & Co. {{ISBN|3-11-011299-X}}.</ref>

===Neurological discrimination===
{{Main article|Neurodiversity}}
{{See also|Ableism}}

==== High-functioning ====
Broadly speaking, attribution of low social status to those who do not conform to non-autistic expectations of personality and behaviour. This can manifest through assumption of 'disability' status to those who are high functioning enough to exist outside of diagnostic criteria, yet do not desire to (or are unable to) conform their behaviour to conventional patterns. This is a controversial and somewhat contemporary concept; with various disciplinary approaches promoting conflicting messages what normality constitutes, the degree of acceptable [[Differential psychology|individual difference]] within that category, and the precise criteria for what constitutes medical disorder. This has been most prominent in the case of high-functioning autism,<ref name="Silberman, Steve 2015">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WRpPDQAAQBAJ NeuroTribes: The legacy of autism and how to think smarter about people who think differently]''. Allen & Unwin. Print.</ref> where direct cognitive benefits increasingly appear to come at the expense of social intelligence.<ref>{{cite journal
| last = Iuculano
| first = Teresa
| title = Brain Organization Underlying Superior Mathematical Abilities in Children with Autism
| journal = Biological Psychiatry
| year = 2014
| doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.06.018
| volume=75
| issue = 3
| pages=223–230| pmc=3897253
| pmid=23954299
}}</ref>

Discrimination may also extend to other high functioning individuals carrying pathological phenotypes, such as those with [[ADHD|attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]] and [[Bipolar disorder|bipolar spectrum disorders]]. In these cases, there are indications that perceived (or actual) socially disadvantageous cognitive traits are directly correlated with advantageous cognitive traits in other domains, notably creativity and divergent thinking,<ref>{{cite journal
| last = Carson
| first = Shelley 
| title = Creativity and Psychopathology: A Shared Vulnerability Model
| journal = Canadian Journal of Psychiatry
| year = 2011
| pmid=21443821
| volume=56
| issue = 3 
| pages=144–53| doi = 10.1177/070674371105600304 
| doi-access = free
}}</ref> and yet these strengths might become systematically overlooked. The case for "neurological discrimination" as such lies in the expectation that one's professional capacity may be judged by the quality of ones social interaction, which can in such cases be an inaccurate and discriminatory metric for employment suitability.

Since there are moves by some experts to have these [[High-functioning autism|higher-functioning]] extremes reclassified as extensions of human personality,<ref>{{cite journal
| last = Wakabayashi
| first = Akio
| title = Are autistic traits an independent personality dimension? A study of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) and the NEO-PI-R
| journal = Personality and Individual Differences
| year = 2006
| doi=10.1016/j.paid.2006.04.003
| volume=41
| issue = 5
| pages=873–883}}</ref> any legitimisation of discrimination against these groups would fit the very definition of prejudice, as medical validation for such discrimination becomes redundant. Recent advancements in [[behavioural genetics]] and [[neuroscience]] have made this a very relevant issue of discussion, with existing frameworks requiring significant overhaul to accommodate the strength of findings over the last decade.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}}