Editing Population transfer (section)

==In Europe==
===France===
Two famous transfers connected with the [[history of France]] are the banning of the religion of the Jews in 1308 and that of the [[Huguenot]]s, French [[Protestants]] by the [[Edict of Fontainebleau]] in 1685. Religious warfare over the Protestants led to many seeking refuge in the Low Countries, England and Switzerland.<ref name="huguenot_switzerland">{{cite web |title=The Huguenot Refuge in Switzerland |url=https://museeprotestant.org/en/notice/le-refuge-huguenot-en-suisse/ |website=Protestant Museum website |access-date=13 December 2022}}</ref> In the early 18th century, some Huguenots emigrated to [[Thirteen Colonies|colonial America]]. In both cases, the population was not forced out but rather their religion was declared illegal and so many left the country.

According to Ivan Sertima, [[Louis XV of France|Louis XV]] ordered all blacks to be deported from France but was unsuccessful. At the time, they were mostly [[free people of color]] from the Caribbean and Louisiana colonies, usually descendants of French colonial men and African women. Some fathers sent their mixed-race sons to France to be educated or gave them property to be settled there. Others entered the military, as did [[Thomas-Alexandre Dumas]], the father of [[Alexandre Dumas]].<ref name="Sertima1986">{{cite book |last=Sertima |first=Ivan Van |title=African Presence in Early Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JMY1p0t_bHoC&pg=PA199 |access-date=10 June 2011 |date=1986-01-01 |publisher=Transaction Books |isbn=978-0-88738-664-0 |page=199 |quote=Louis XV, in an effort to stop the mass influx of blacks into Paris, ordered all blacks deported from France. This did not, in fact, take place.}}</ref>

Some Algerians were also forcefully removed from their native land by France in the late 19th century, and moved to the Pacific, most notably to New Caledonia.<ref>{{Citation |title=🇩🇿 Exile In New Caledonia {{!}} Al Jazeera World | date=17 September 2015 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1qsr-FjZhEM |access-date=2024-01-26 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Douah |first1=Chahrazade |last2=Godin |first2=Mélissa |date=2022-05-02 |title=The Algerians of New Caledonia |url=https://newlinesmag.com/essays/the-algerians-of-new-caledonia/ |access-date=2024-01-26 |website=New Lines Magazine |language=en}}</ref>

===Ireland===
[[File:PRENDERGAST(1870) p 438 Map of Connaught, as laid out to receive the Inhabitants from the several Counties ofthe other Provinces, A.D. 1654.jpg|thumb|Map of land west of the [[River Shannon]] allocated to the native Irish after expulsion from their lands by the [[Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652]]. Note that all offshore islands were "cleared of Irish" and a belt one mile wide around the coastline was reserved for English settlers.]]
After the [[Cromwellian conquest of Ireland#Guerrilla warfare, famine and plague|Cromwellian conquest of Ireland]] and [[Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652|Act of Settlement]] in 1652, most indigenous [[Irish Catholic]] land holders had their lands confiscated and were banned from living in planted towns. An unknown number, possibly as high as 100,000 [[Irish people|Irish]] were removed to the colonies in the West Indies and North America as [[indentured servants]].<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/ashorthistory/archive/intro99.shtml ''The Curse of Cromwell''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302224034/http://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/ashorthistory/archive/intro99.shtml |date=2012-03-02 }}, ''A Short History of Northern Ireland'', BBC</ref>

In addition, the Crown supported a series of population transfers into Ireland to enlarge the loyal Protestant population of Ireland. Known as [[Plantations of Ireland|the plantations]], they had migrants come chiefly from Scotland and the northern border counties of England. In the late eighteenth century, the Scots-Irish constituted the largest group of immigrants from the British Isles to enter the [[Thirteen Colonies]] before the [[American Revolutionary War]].<ref>[[David Hackett Fischer]], ''[[Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America]]''</ref>

===Scotland===
The [[enclosure]]s that depopulated rural England in the [[British Agricultural Revolution]] started during the [[Middle Ages]]. Similar developments in [[Scotland]] have lately been called the [[Lowland Clearances]].

The [[Highland Clearances]] were forced displacements of the populations of the [[Scottish Highlands]] and [[Scottish Islands]] in the 18th century. They led to mass emigration to the coast, the [[Scottish Lowlands]] and abroad, including to the Thirteen Colonies, Canada and the Caribbean.

===Central Europe===
{{Further|World War II evacuation and expulsion}}
{{Main|Expulsion of Poles by Nazi Germany|Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)}}
[[File:Vertreibung.jpg|thumb|Germans being deported from the [[Sudetenland]] in the aftermath of World War II]]
Historically, expulsions of [[Jews]] and of [[Romani people]] reflect the power of state control that has been applied as a tool, in the form of expulsion edicts, laws, mandates etc., against them for centuries.

After the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]] divided [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]] during [[World War II]], Germans deported [[Polish people|Poles]] and [[Jews]] from [[Polish territories annexed by Nazi Germany]], and the [[Soviet Union]] deported Poles from areas of Eastern Poland, [[Kresy]] to Siberia and Kazakhstan. From 1940, [[Adolf Hitler]] tried to get Germans to resettle from the areas in which they were the minority (the Baltics, South-Eastern and Eastern Europe) to the [[Reichsgau Wartheland|Warthegau]], the region around [[Poznań]], German ''Posen''. He expelled the Poles and Jews who formed there the majority of the population. Before the war, the [[Germans]] were 16% of the population in the area.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/displacementofpo031323mbp|title=The Displacement Of Population In Europe|first=Eugene M.|last=Kulischer|date=28 October 2017|publisher=The International labour Office|via=Internet Archive}}</ref>

The [[Nazis]] initially tried to press Jews to emigrate and in Austria succeeded in driving out most of the Jewish population. However, increasing foreign resistance brought the plan to a virtual halt. Later on, Jews were transferred to [[ghetto]]es and eventually to [[death camp]]s. Use of [[forced labor in Germany during World War II|forced labor in Nazi Germany during World War II]] occurred on a large scale. Jews who had signed over properties in Germany and Austria during Nazism, although coerced to do so, found it nearly impossible to be reimbursed after World War II, partly because of the ability of governments to make the "personal decision to leave" argument.

The Germans abducted about 12 million people from almost twenty European countries; about two thirds of whom came from [[Eastern Europe]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,1757323,00.html|title=Final Compensation Pending for Former Nazi Forced Laborers - DW - 27.10.2005|website=Deutsche Welle|access-date=4 May 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090813200714/http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,1757323,00.html|archive-date=13 August 2009}}</ref>
After World War II, when the [[Curzon line]], which had been proposed in 1919 by the Western Allies as Poland's eastern border, was implemented, members of all ethnic groups were transferred to their respective new territories ([[Polish people|Poles]] to Poland, [[Ukrainians]] to Soviet Ukraine). The same applied to the [[Former eastern territories of Germany|formerly-German territories]] east of the [[Oder-Neisse line]], where German citizens were transferred to Germany. [[Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50)|Germans were expelled from areas annexed]] by the [[Soviet Union]] and [[Poland]] as well as territories of [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Hungary]], [[Romania]] and [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/495765/refugee|title=refugee|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007164845/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/495765/refugee|archive-date=2008-10-07}}</ref> From 1944 until 1948, between 13.5 and 16.5 million Germans were expelled, [[East Prussia#Evacuation of East Prussia|evacuated]] or fled from Central and Eastern Europe. The Statistisches Bundesamt (federal statistics office) estimates the loss of life at 2.1 million <ref>Statistisches Bundesamt, ''Die Deutschen Vertreibungsverluste'', Wiesbaden 1958, see also Gerhard Reichling "Die deutschen Vertriebenen in Zahlen", vol. 1–2, Bonn 1986/89.</ref>

Poland and [[Soviet Ukraine]] conducted population exchanges. Poles residing east of the new Poland-Soviet border were deported to Poland (2,100,000 persons), and [[Ukrainians]] that resided west of the New border were deported to Soviet Ukraine. [[Population transfer in the Soviet Union|Population transfer to Soviet Ukraine occurred]] from September 1944 to May 1946 (450,000 persons). Some Ukrainians (200,000 persons) left southeast Poland more or less voluntarily (between 1944 and 1945).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.migrationeducation.org/13.0.html|title=Forced migration in the 20th century|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151021014423/http://www.migrationeducation.org/13.0.html|archive-date=2015-10-21}}</ref> The second event occurred in 1947 under [[Operation Vistula]].<ref>[http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/lang/languages/langmin/euromosaic/pol6_en.html The Euromosaic study: Ukrainian in Poland] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080222170612/http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/lang/languages/langmin/euromosaic/pol6_en.html |date=2008-02-22}}. [[European Commission]], October 2006.</ref>

Nearly 20 million people in [[Europe]] fled their homes or were expelled, transferred or exchanged during the process of sorting out ethnic groups between 1944 and 1951.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Postwar Population Transfers in Europe: A Survey|first=Joseph B.|last=Schechtman|date=28 October 2017|journal=The Review of Politics|volume=15|issue=2|pages=151–178|doi=10.1017/S0034670500008081|jstor = 1405220|s2cid=144307581 }}</ref>

===Spain===

In 1492 the Jewish population of  Spain was [[Expulsion of Jews from Spain|expelled]] through the [[Alhambra Decree]]. Some of the Jews went to North Africa; others east into Poland, France and Italy, and other Mediterranean countries.

In 1609, was the [[Expulsion of the Moriscos]], the final transfer of 300,000 Muslims out of Spain, after more than a century of Catholic trials, segregation, and religious restrictions. Most of the Spanish Muslims went to North Africa and to areas of [[Ottoman Empire]] control.<ref>[http://elpais.com/diario/2009/01/02/opinion/1230850811_850215.html José Manuel Fajardo, Opinion: "Moriscos: el mayor exilio español"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120718030000/http://elpais.com/diario/2009/01/02/opinion/1230850811_850215.html|date=2012-07-18}}, ''[[El Païs]]'', 2 Ene (January) 2009, in Spanish, accessed 8 December 2012</ref>

===Southeastern Europe===
In September 1940, with the return of [[Southern Dobruja]] by [[Romania]] to [[Bulgaria]] under the [[Treaty of Craiova]], a [[Population exchange between Bulgaria and Romania|population exchange]] was carried out. 103,711 Romanians, [[Aromanians]] and [[Megleno-Romanians]] were compelled to move north of the border, while 62,278 Bulgarians living in Northern [[Dobruja]] were forced to move into Bulgaria.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8taGDAAAQBAJ|title=Hitler's forgotten ally: Ion Antonescu and his regime, Romania 1940-1944|first=Dennis|last=Deletant|author-link=Dennis Deletant|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|pages=1–376|year=2006|isbn=9781403993410}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=257706|title=Aplicarea tratatului româno-bulgar de la Craiova (1940)|first=Maria|last=Costea|journal=Anuarul Institutului de Cercetări Socio-Umane "Gheorghe Șincai" al Academiei Române|issue=12|pages=267–275|year=2009|language=ro}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.memoria-ethnologica.ro/wp-content/uploads/me_vol_52_53/pdf/me_52_53_p_012_029_emil_tircomnicu.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.memoria-ethnologica.ro/wp-content/uploads/me_vol_52_53/pdf/me_52_53_p_012_029_emil_tircomnicu.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=Historical aspects regarding the Megleno-Romanian groups in Greece, the FY Republic of Macedonia, Turkey and Romania|first=Emil|last=Țîrcomnicu|journal=Memoria Ethnologica|volume=14|issue=52–53|pages=12–29|year=2014}}</ref>

Around 360,000 [[Bulgarian Turks]] fled Bulgaria during the [[Revival Process]].<ref>[[Tomasz Kamusella]]. 2018. ''Ethnic Cleansing During the Cold War: The Forgotten 1989 Expulsion of Turks from Communist Bulgaria'' (Ser: Routledge Studies in Modern European History). London: Routledge, 328pp. {{ISBN|9781138480520}}</ref>

During the [[Yugoslav wars]] in the 1990s, the breakup of [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] caused large population transfers, mostly involuntary. As it was a conflict fueled by [[ethnic nationalism]], people of minority ethnicities generally fled towards regions that their ethnicity was the majority.

The phenomenon of "[[ethnic cleansing]]" was first seen in [[Croatia]] but soon spread to [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]]. Since the [[Bosniaks|Bosnian Muslims]] had no immediate refuge, they were arguably the hardest hit by the ethnic violence. United Nations tried to create ''safe areas'' for Muslim populations of eastern Bosnia but in the [[Srebrenica massacre]] and elsewhere, the peacekeeping troops failed to protect the ''safe areas'', resulting in the massacre of thousands of Muslims.

The [[Dayton Accords]] ended the war in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], fixing the borders between the two warring parties roughly to those established by the autumn of 1995. One immediate result of the population transfer after the peace deal was a sharp decline in ethnic violence in the region.

A massive and systematic deportation of [[Serbia]]'s [[Albanians]] took place during the [[Kosovo War]] of 1999, with around 800,000 Albanians (out of a population of about 1.5 million) forced to flee [[Kosovo]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kosovo/|title=Europe :: Kosovo — The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency|website=www.cia.gov|access-date=2019-07-06}}</ref> Albanians became the majority in Kosovo at the wars end, around 200,000 Serbs and Roma fled Kosovo. When Kosovo proclaimed independence in 2008, the bulk of its population was Albanian.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Serbia|title=Serbia {{!}} History, Geography, & People|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2019-07-06}}</ref>

A number of commanders and politicians, notably Serbia and Yugoslav President [[Slobodan Milošević]], were put on trial by the UN's [[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]] for a variety of [[war crime]]s, including deportations and genocide.

===Greece and Turkey===

{{Main|Population exchange between Greece and Turkey}}
[[File:Smyrna-massacre-refugees-1922.jpg|thumb|Greek refugees from [[Smyrna]], 1922]]
Following the [[Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)|Greco-Turkish War]] of 1919–1922, the League of Nations defined those to be mutually expelled as the "Muslim inhabitants of Greece" to Turkey and moving "the Christian Orthodox inhabitants of Turkey" to Greece. The plan met with fierce opposition in both countries and was condemned vigorously by a large number of countries. Undeterred, [[Fridtjof Nansen]] worked with both Greece and Turkey to gain their acceptance of the proposed population exchange. About 1.5 million Christians and half a million Muslims were moved from one side of the international border to the other.

When the exchange was to take effect (1 May 1923), most of the prewar Orthodox Greek population of Aegean Turkey had already fled due to persecution and the [[Greek genocide|Greek Genocide]], and so only the Orthodox Christians of central Anatolia (both [[Cappadocian Greeks|Greek]] and [[Karamanlides|Turkish-speaking]]), and the [[Pontic Greeks]] were involved, a total of roughly 189,916.<ref>{{cite book |author=Matthew J. Gibney, Randall Hansen. |title=Immigration and asylum: from 1900 to the present, Volume 3 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2005 |page=[https://archive.org/details/immigrationasylu00matt/page/377 377] |isbn=978-1-57607-796-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/immigrationasylu00matt/page/377 }}</ref> The total number of [[Islam in Greece|Muslims]] involved was 354,647.<ref>{{cite book |author=Renée Hirschon. |title=Crossing the Aegean: an appraisal of the 1923 compulsory population exchange between Greece and Turkey |url=https://archive.org/details/crossingaegeanap00hirs |url-access=limited |publisher=Berghahn Books |year=2003 |page=[https://archive.org/details/crossingaegeanap00hirs/page/n53 85] |isbn=978-1-57181-562-0 }}</ref>

The population transfer prevented further attacks on minorities in the respective states, and Nansen was awarded a [[Nobel Peace Prize]]. As a result of the transfers, the Muslim minority in Greece and the Greek minority in Turkey were much reduced. [[Cyprus]] and the [[Dodecanese]] were not included in the Greco-Turkish population transfer of 1923 because they were under direct British and Italian control respectively. For the fate of [[Turkish invasion of Cyprus|Cyprus]], see below. The Dodecanese became part of Greece in 1947.

===Italy===
In 1939, Hitler and [[Mussolini]] agreed to give the German-speaking population of South Tyrol a choice (the [[South Tyrol Option Agreement]]): they could emigrate to neighbouring [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] (including the recently-[[Anschluss|annexed]] [[Austria]]) or stay in Italy and accept to be assimilated. Because of the outbreak of World War II, the agreement was only partially consummated.

===Cyprus===
{{See also|Civilian casualties and displacements during the Cyprus conflict}}
After the [[Turkish invasion of Cyprus]] and subsequent [[Cyprus dispute#The divided island 1974–1997|division of the island]], there was an agreement between the [[Greek Cypriot|Greek]] representative on one side and the [[Turkish Cypriot]] representative on the other side under the auspices of the [[United Nations]] on August 2, 1975. The Government of the Republic of Cyprus would lift any restrictions in the voluntary movement of Turkish Cypriots to the Turkish-occupied areas of the island, and in exchange, the Turkish Cypriot side would allow all Greek Cypriots who remained in the occupied areas to stay there and to be given every help to live a normal life.<ref>[https://www.un.org/Docs/journal/asp/ws.asp?m=s/11789 United Nations, Text of the Press Communique on the Cyprus Talks Issued in Vienna on 2 August 1975] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102174825/http://www.un.org/Docs/journal/asp/ws.asp?m=s%2F11789 |date=2 November 2012 }} United Nations, Text of the Press Communique on the Cyprus Talks Issued in Vienna on 2 August 1975.</ref>

Around 150,000 people (amounting to more than one-quarter of the total population of Cyprus, and to one-third of its [[Greek Cypriots|Greek Cypriot population]]) were displaced from the northern part of the island, where Greek Cypriots had constituted 80% of the population. Over the course of the next year, roughly 60,000 [[Turkish Cypriots]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tocci |first=Nathalie |title=The EU and Conflict Resolution: Promoting Peace in the Backyard |date=2007 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1134123384 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aD-D5KusCkMC&pg=PA32 32] |author-link=Nathalie Tocci}}</ref> amounting to half the Turkish Cypriot population,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pericleous |first=Chrysostomos |title=Cyprus Referendum: A Divided Island and the Challenge of the Annan Plan |date=2009 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=978-0857711939 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PHQAAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA201 201]}}</ref> were displaced from the south to the north.<ref>{{Cite news |title=1974: Turkey Invades Cyprus |work=[[BBC]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/20/newsid_3866000/3866521.stm |access-date=2 October 2010 |archive-date=26 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026183806/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/20/newsid_3866000/3866521.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Soviet Union===
{{Main|Population transfer in the Soviet Union}}
Shortly before, during and immediately after [[World War II]], [[Joseph Stalin]] conducted a series of deportations on a huge scale, which profoundly affected the ethnic map of the [[Soviet Union]]. Over 1.5 million people were deported to [[Siberia]] and the [[Central Asian]] republics. Separatism, resistance to Soviet rule and collaboration with the [[invasion|invading]] Germans were cited as the main official reasons for the deportations. After World War II, the population of [[East Prussia]] was replaced by the Soviet one, mainly by [[Russians]]. Many Tartari Muslims were transferred to Northern Crimea, now Ukraine, while Southern Crimea and Yalta were populated with Russians.

At the conclusion of the [[Yalta Conference]], the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] made numerous promises, one of them was their promise to return all [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] citizens who found themselves in the Allied zone to the Soviet Union ([[Operation Keelhaul]]). That policy immediately affected the [[Nazi crimes against Soviet POWs|Soviet prisoners of war]] who were liberated by the Allies, and it was extended to all [[Eastern Europe]]an [[refugees]]. Outlining the plan to force refugees to return to the [[Soviet Union]], the codicil was kept secret from the American and British people for over 50 years.<ref>Jacob Hornberger ''Repatriation — The Dark Side of World War II''. The Future of Freedom Foundation, 1995. {{cite web |url=http://www.fff.org/freedom/0495a.asp |title=Repatriation -- the Dark Side of World War II, Part 3 |access-date=2014-01-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117092222/http://www.fff.org/freedom/0495a.asp |archive-date=2012-01-17 }}</ref>

===Ukraine===
{{expand section|date=April 2022}}
{{See also|Child abductions in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine}}
Hundreds of thousands of Ukrainians have reportedly been forcibly deported to Russia during the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]].<ref name="EuronewsUkraine">{{cite web |url=https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2022/03/30/more-than-400-000-ukrainians-forcibly-displaced-to-russia-claims-ukraine-s-ombudswoman |title=More than 400,000 Ukrainians 'forcibly displaced to Russia', claims Ukraine's ombudswoman |date=March 30, 2022 |work=Euronews |first=Shona |last=Murray}}</ref>  Because of Russia's deporting of thousands of Ukrainian children to Russia, the international criminal court issued an arrest warrant for [[Vladimir Putin]] the president of Russia and [[Maria Lvova-Belova]] Russia's commissioner for children's rights.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Leff |first=Alex |last2=Kelemen |first2=Michele |last3=Maynes |first3=Charles |date=2023-03-17 |title=The International Criminal Court issues an arrest warrant for Putin |url=https://www.npr.org/2023/03/17/1164267436/international-criminal-court-arrest-warrant-putin-ukraine-alleged-war-crimes |access-date=2025-03-28 |publisher=[[NPR]] |language=en}}</ref> As of 21 November 2023 there was 6,338,100 Ukrainian refugees fleeing the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Most (5,946,000) have gone to European countries but a minority (392,100) went to countries outside of Europe<ref>{{Cite web |title=Situation Ukraine Refugee Situation |url=https://data.unhcr.org/en/situations/ukraine |access-date=2023-11-23 |website=data.unhcr.org}}</ref>