Editing Pollinator (section)

==== Flies ====
Many [[Bombyliidae|bee flies]], and some [[Horse-fly|Tabanidae]] and [[Nemestrinidae]] are particularly adapted to pollinating [[fynbos]] and [[Karoo]] plants with narrow, deep [[Petal|corolla tubes]], such as ''[[Lapeirousia]]'' species. Part of the adaptation takes the form of remarkably long probosces. This also applies to empidine dance flies ([[Empidinae]]) that visit a wide range of flowering plants, some species of which can pollinate the [[Geranium sylvaticum|woodland geranium]] ([[Geranium sylvaticum|''Geranium sylvaticum'' L.]]) as effectively as [[bee]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lefebvre V, Daugeron C, Villemant C, Fontaine C | title = Empidine dance flies pollinate the woodland geranium as effectively as bees | journal = Biology Letters | volume = 15 | issue = 7 | pages = 20190230 | date = July 2019 | pmid = 31362609 | pmc = 6684995 | doi = 10.1098/rsbl.2019.0230 }}</ref>

[[File:Goudoogdaas zijaanzicht 2009 08 23.png|thumb|left|[[Horse-fly|Tabanid]] fly on a [[thistle]] flower]]
Carrion flies and flesh flies in families such as [[Calliphoridae]] and [[Flesh-fly|Sarcophagidae]] are important for some species of plants whose flowers [[Carrion flower|exude a fetid odor]]. The plants' ecological strategy varies; several species of ''[[Stapelia]]'', for example, attract carrion flies that futilely lay their eggs on the flower, where their larvae promptly starve for lack of [[carrion]]. Other species do decay rapidly after ripening, and offer the visiting insects large masses of food, as well as pollen and sometimes seed to carry off when they leave.

[[Hoverfly|Hoverflies]] are important pollinators of flowering plants worldwide.<ref name="Larson 2001 439–465">{{cite journal | vauthors = Larson BM, Kevan PG, Inouye DW |title=Flies and flowers: taxonomic diversity of anthophiles and pollinators. |journal=Canadian Entomologist |year=2001 |volume=133 |issue=4  |pages=439–465 |doi=10.4039/ent133439-4|s2cid=55767580 }}</ref> Often hoverflies are considered to be the second most important pollinators after wild bees.<ref name="Larson 2001 439–465"/> Although hoverflies as a whole are generally considered to be nonselective pollinators, some species have more specialized relationships. The orchid species ''Epipactis veratrifolia'' mimics alarm [[pheromones]] of aphids to attract hover flies for pollination.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Stökl J, Brodmann J, Dafni A, Ayasse M, Hansson BS | title = Smells like aphids: orchid flowers mimic aphid alarm pheromones to attract hoverflies for pollination | journal = Proceedings. Biological Sciences | volume = 278 | issue = 1709 | pages = 1216–1222 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 20943694 | pmc = 3049078 | doi = 10.1098/rspb.2010.1770 }}</ref> Another plant, the [[slipper orchid]] in southwest China, also achieves pollination by deceit by exploiting the [[innate]] yellow colour preference of syrphids.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Shi J, Luo YB, Bernhardt P, Ran JC, Liu ZJ, Zhou Q | title = Pollination by deceit in Paphiopedilum barbigerum (Orchidaceae): a staminode exploits the innate colour preferences of hoverflies (Syrphidae) | journal = Plant Biology | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | pages = 17–28 | date = January 2009 | pmid = 19121110 | doi = 10.1111/j.1438-8677.2008.00120.x | bibcode = 2009PlBio..11...17S }}</ref>

Some male [[Dacini|dacine fruit flies]] are exclusive pollinators of some wild ''[[Bulbophyllum]]'' orchids that lack nectar and have a specific chemical attractant and reward (methyl eugenol, raspberry ketone or zingerone) present in their floral fragrances.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tan KH, Nishida R, Toong YC | date = 2002 | title = ''Bulbophyllum cheiri'' floral synomone lures fruit flies to perform pollination. | journal = Journal of Chemical Ecology | volume = 28 | issue = 6 | pages = 1161–1172 | doi = 10.1023/A:1016277500007 | pmid = 12184394 | s2cid = 36621985 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tan K, Nishida R | title = Synomone or kairomone?-Bulbophyllum apertum flower releases raspberry ketone to attract Bactrocera fruit flies. | journal = Journal of Chemical Ecology | date = 2005 | volume = 31 | issue = 3 | pages = 497–507 | doi = 10.1007/s10886-005-2023-8| pmid = 15898497 | bibcode = 2005JCEco..31..497K | s2cid = 39173699 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tan KH, Nishida R | title = Zingerone in the floral synomone of ''Bulbophyllum baileyi'' (Orchidaceae) attracts ''Bactrocera'' fruit flies during pollination. | journal = Biochemical Systematics and Ecology | date = June 2007 | volume = 35 | issue = 6 | pages = 334–341 | doi = 10.1016/j.bse.2007.01.013 | bibcode = 2007BioSE..35..334T }}</ref>

Some flies, especially [[Anthomyiidae]], [[Empididae]] and [[Muscidae]], may be the main pollinators at higher elevations of mountains,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lefebvre V, Fontaine C, Villemant C, Daugeron C |date=November 2014 |title=Are empidine dance flies major flower visitors in alpine environments? A case study in the Alps, France |journal=Biology Letters |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=20140742 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2014.0742 |pmc=4261866 |pmid=25376804}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lefebvre V, Villemant C, Fontaine C, Daugeron C |date=March 2018 |title=Altitudinal, temporal and trophic partitioning of flower-visitors in Alpine communities |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=4706 |bibcode=2018NatSR...8.4706L |doi=10.1038/s41598-018-23210-y |pmc=5856740 |pmid=29549294}}</ref> whereas [[bumblebee]] species are typically the only other pollinators in alpine regions at timberline and beyond.

Some adult [[mosquito]]es, if they feed on nectar, may act as pollinators; ''Aedes communis'', a species found in North America, is known to pollinate ''[[Platanthera obtusata]]'', commonly referred as the blunt-leaved orchid.<ref>{{cite web |date=8 July 2015 |title=Year of Pollination: Mosquitoes as Pollinators |url=https://awkwardbotany.com/2015/07/08/year-of-pollination-mosquitoes-as-pollinators/ |access-date=28 July 2017 |website=awkward botany}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=''Aedes communis'': The Pollinating Mosquito |url=https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/pollinators/pollinator-of-the-month/aedes_communis.shtml |access-date=28 July 2017 |website=[[United States Forest Service]] |vauthors=Statman-Weil Z}}</ref>

Biting midges ([[Ceratopogonidae]]) pollinate ''[[Theobroma cacao]]'' (Malvaceae), whose flowers have pollen inaccessible to larger pollinators.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Arnold |first1=S.E.J. |last2=Forbes |first2=S.J. |last3=Hall |first3=D.R. |last4=Farman |first4=D.I. |last5=Bridgemohan |first5=P. |last6=Spinelli |first6=G.R. |last7=Bray |first7=D.P. |last8=Perry |first8=G.B. |last9=Grey |first9=L. |last10=Belmain |first10=S.R. |last11=Stevenson |first11=P.C. |year=2019 |title=Floral Odors and the Interaction between Pollinating Ceratopogonid Midges and Cacao |journal=Journal of Chemical Ecology |volume=45 |issue=10 |pages=869–878 |bibcode=2019JCEco..45..869A |doi=10.1007/s10886-019-01118-9 |pmid=31741191 |s2cid=208086796 |doi-access=free}}</ref>