Editing Pittsfield, Massachusetts (section)

===Housatonic River===
====Background and historical overview====
Flowing through a historically rural area,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://savethehousatonic.org/?page_id=106 |title=Early History of the River |publisher=Save The Housatonic |access-date=February 6, 2009 |archive-date=April 3, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090403091643/http://savethehousatonic.org/?page_id=106 |url-status=dead }}</ref> the [[Housatonic River]] attracted increased industrialization in the late 19th century. [[William Stanley Jr.]], founded the Stanley Electric Manufacturing Company in 1890 at Pittsfield. The company manufactured small transformers, electrical motors and appliances. In 1903, GE acquired Stanley Electric and subsequently operated three major manufacturing operations in Pittsfield: [[transformer]], [[ammunition|ordnance]], and [[plastic]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.williamstanleybusinesspark.com/history_property.asp |title=Overview of William Stanley Business Park of the Berkshires |publisher=Pittsfield Economic Development Authority |access-date=February 6, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704173531/http://www.williamstanleybusinesspark.com/history_property.asp |archive-date=July 4, 2008}}</ref>

====Environmental issues====
During the mid-20th century, the Housatonic River and its floodplain were contaminated with [[polychlorinated biphenyl]]s (PCBs) and other hazardous substances released from the [[General Electric Pittsfield Plant|General Electric Company (GE) facility]] in Pittsfield. The contaminated area, known as the General Electric/Housatonic River Site, includes the GE manufacturing facility; the Housatonic River, its riverbanks and floodplains from Pittsfield to Long Island Sound, and former [[Oxbow lake|river oxbows]] that have since been filled in; Allendale School; Silver Lake; and other areas contaminated as a result of GE's operations in Pittsfield.<ref name=epasitehistory>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/ne/ge/sitehistory.html |title=Site History and Description: GE/Housatonic River Site in New England |date=November 20, 2008 |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) |access-date=February 6, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519121339/http://www.epa.gov/NE/ge/sitehistory.html |archive-date=May 19, 2011}}</ref>

The highest concentrations of PCBs in the Housatonic River are found from the site of the GE plant in Pittsfield to Woods Pond in [[Lenox, Massachusetts]], where they have been measured up to 140&nbsp;mg/kg (140 ppm).<ref name=USGS>{{cite journal |url=https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/wsp2266 |title=Distribution of polychlorinated biphenyls in the Housatonic River and adjacent aquifer, Massachusetts |first1=Frederick B. |last1=Gay |first2=Michael H. |last2=Frimpter |year=1985 |publisher=USGS|doi=10.3133/wsp2266 |doi-access=free }}</ref> About 50% of all the PCBs in the river is estimated to be retained in the sediment behind Woods Pond dam. This is estimated to be about 11,000 pounds of PCBs.<ref name=USGS /> Birds and fish that live in and around the river contain significant levels of PCBs.<ref>{{cite web|title=Rest of River of the GE-Pittsfield/Housatonic River Site|date=June 25, 2015|url=http://www2.epa.gov/ge-housatonic/rest-river-ge-pittsfieldhousatonic-river-site|access-date=September 25, 2015}}</ref>

====Consent decree and cleanup====
[[File:GE Pittsfield MA-Housatonic R Halfmile Cleanup Site-Cell B.jpg|thumb|Cleanup activity at one of the GE Pittsfield plant Superfund sites on the [[Housatonic River]].]]
Starting in 1991, legal proceedings by the [[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) established the General Electric/Housatonic River Site. Initial cleanup work began in 1996 when EPA issued a unilateral order to GE that required the removal of highly contaminated sediments and bank soils. EPA added the site to its [[Superfund]] list in September 1997.

The year 1999 was a milestone for Pittsfield, when negotiations between EPA, the state, General Electric and the city resulted in a [[settlement agreement]], valued at over $250 million, to clean up Pittsfield and the Housatonic River. The settlement was memorialized in a consent decree entered in federal court the following year, making it a binding legal agreement.<ref name=epa9420>{{cite web |url=http://www.epa.gov/ne/ge/cleanup/9420.pdf |title=Consent Decree |date=October 27, 2000 |publisher=EPA |access-date=February 6, 2009}}</ref> Between 2005 and 2018 GE completed remediation and restoration of the 10 manufacturing plant areas within the city, and continues to conduct inspection, monitoring and maintenance activities.<ref>{{cite web |title=GE Plant Area of the GE-Pittsfield/Housatonic River Site  |url=https://www.epa.gov/ge-housatonic/ge-plant-area-ge-pittsfieldhousatonic-river-site |date=2021-07-12 |publisher=EPA}}</ref>

Cleanup of the polluted downstream river areas has not been completed as of 2023. Following a public comment period, EPA issued a permit in December 2020 for the final cleanup phase. In 2021 two of the citizen groups that were parties to the settlement filed an appeal of the permit, criticizing the design of a planned landfill to be located in Berkshire County. In February 2022 the US Environmental Appeals Board (EAB) denied the permit appeal.<ref>{{cite news |last=Parnass |first=Larry |title=U.S. environmental court backs PCB cleanup plan for the Housatonic River, rejecting claim of EPA error and allowing Lee landfill |url=https://www.berkshireeagle.com/news/local/environmental-court-ruling-appeal-epa-housatonic-river-pcbs/article_c354991a-892b-11ec-8d9f-6b34dc9a0671.html |date=2022-02-08 |work=The Berkshire Eagle}}</ref> Following the EAB ruling, EPA continued to design the new PCB disposal facility and conducted public meetings in 2022.<ref>{{cite web |last=Cohen |first=Nancy Eve |title=Citizens concerned about public health, environmental risks at proposed PCB dump in Lee |url=https://www.capeandislands.org/2022-12-15/citizens-concerned-about-public-health-environmental-risks-at-proposed-pcb-dump-in-lee |date=2022-12-15 |work=New England Public Media}}</ref> Two citizen groups appealed the EAB decision to the [[United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit|First Circuit Court of Appeals]], and in July 2023 the court rejected the plaintiffs' challenge.<ref>{{cite news |last=Cohen |first=Nancy Eve |title=Federal appeals court rejects environmentalists' challenge to EPA's Housatonic cleanup plan |url=https://www.nepm.org/regional-news/2023-07-28/federal-appeals-court-rejects-environmentalists-challenge-to-epas-housatonic-cleanup-plan |date=2023-07-28 |work=New England Public Media}}</ref>

====Groundwater and long-term monitoring====
In the years since the settlement was reached, the EPA, state agencies, the City and GE accomplished one of the largest and most complex cleanups in the country. Cleanup work on the first previously PCB-laden half mile of the Housatonic River, adjacent to the GE facility, was completed in September 2002.<ref name=epasitehistory /> $90 million was spent cleaning up the {{convert|1.5|mi|adj=on}} reach between Lyman Street and Fred Garner Park, which was completed in June 2007. Biological and sediment samples showed reductions of approximately 99% of PCB concentrations compared to conditions before remediation.<ref name=epasitehistory /> GE removed contaminated soil and restored 27 residential properties abutting the river. As of 2006 more than {{convert|115000|cuyd|m3}} of PCB-contaminated sediment, bank, and floodplain soil have been removed from the river and residential property.<ref name=epavarney>{{cite web |url=http://www.epa.gov/ne/ra/column/archive/2006/pittsfield_cleanup_20060303.html |title=Step By Step, Clean Up Efforts Make Pittsfield Healthier |last=Varney |first=Robert W. |date=March 3, 2006 |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |access-date=February 6, 2009}}</ref> As of 2019 GE has completed remediation and restoration of the 10 manufacturing plant areas within the city, and is conducting inspection, monitoring and maintenance activities.<ref>{{cite web |title=GE Plant Area of the GE-Pittsfield/Housatonic River Site |url=https://www.epa.gov/ge-housatonic/ge-plant-area-ge-pittsfieldhousatonic-river-site |date=August 15, 2019 |publisher=EPA}}</ref>