Editing Peloponnese (section)

===Middle Ages===
[[File:Akrokorinth nordmauern.jpg|thumb|View of the [[Acrocorinth]]]]
====Byzantine rule====
{{main|Byzantine Greece|Morea}}
After the partition of the Empire in 395, the Peloponnese became a part of the [[Byzantine Empire|East Roman or Byzantine Empire]]. The devastation of [[Alaric I|Alaric]]'s raid in 396–397 led to the construction of the [[Hexamilion wall]] across the Isthmus of Corinth.<ref>Kazhdan (1991), p. 927</ref> Through most of [[late antiquity]], the peninsula retained its urbanized character: in the 6th century, [[Hierocles (author of Synecdemus)|Hierocles]] counted 26 cities in his ''[[Synecdemus]]''. By the latter part of that century, however, building activity seems to have stopped virtually everywhere except in Constantinople, Thessalonica, Corinth, and Athens. This has traditionally been attributed to calamities such as plague, earthquakes and Slavic invasions.<ref name="Kazhdan 1991, p. 1620">Kazhdan (1991), p. 1620</ref> However, more recent analysis suggests that urban decline was closely linked with the collapse of long-distance and regional commercial networks that underpinned and supported late antique urbanism in Greece,<ref>Curta (2011), p. 65</ref> as well as with the generalized withdrawal of imperial troops and administration from the Balkans.<ref>Curta (2011), p. 63</ref>

====Slavic invasion, settlement and decline====
The scale of the Slavic invasion and settlement in the 7th and 8th centuries remains a matter of dispute, although it is nowadays considered much smaller than previously thought.<ref>{{Citation | first = TE | last = Gregory | title = A History of Byzantium | publisher = Wiley-Blackwell | year = 2010 | page = 169 | quote = It is now generally agreed that the people who lived in the Balkans after the Slavic "invasions" were probably, for the most part, the same as those who had lived there earlier, although the creation of new political groups and arrival of small immigrants caused people to look at themselves as distinct from their neighbors, including the Byzantines.}}</ref> The Slavs did occupy most of the peninsula, as evidenced by the abundance of Slavic [[Toponymy|toponyms]], but these toponyms accumulated over centuries rather than as a result of an initial "flood" of Slavic invasions, and many appear to have been mediated by speakers of Greek, or in mixed Slavic-Greek compounds.<ref name="Kazhdan 1991, p. 1620"/><ref>Curta (2011), pp. 283–285</ref><ref>Obolensky (1971), pp. 54–55, 75</ref>

Fewer Slavic toponyms appear on the eastern coast, which remained in Byzantine hands and was included in the ''[[Theme (Byzantine district)|thema]]'' of [[Hellas (theme)|Hellas]], established by [[Justinian II]] {{Circa|690}}.<ref>Kazhdan (1991), pp. 911, 1620–1621</ref> While traditional historiography has dated the arrival of Slavs to southern Greece to the late 6th century, according to Florin Curta there is no evidence for a Slavic presence in the Peloponnese until after {{Circa|700 AD}},<ref>Curta (2011), pp. 279–281</ref> when Slavs may have been allowed to settle in specific areas that had been depopulated.<ref>Curta (2011), p. 254</ref>

Relations between the Slavs and Greeks were probably peaceful apart from intermittent uprisings.<ref>Fine (1983), p. 63</ref> There was also a continuity of the Peloponnesian Greek population. This is especially true in [[Mani Peninsula|Mani]] and [[Tsakonia]], where Slavic incursions were minimal, or non-existent. Being agriculturalists, the Slavs probably traded with the Greeks, who remained in the towns, while Greek villages continued to exist in the interior, governing themselves, possibly paying tribute to the Slavs.<ref name="Fine61">Fine (1983), p. 61</ref> The first attempt by the Byzantine imperial government to re-assert its control over the independent Slavic tribes of the Peloponnese occurred in 783, with the [[logothete]] [[Staurakios (eunuch)|Staurakios]]' overland campaign from Constantinople into Greece and the Peloponnese, which according to [[Theophanes the Confessor]] made many prisoners and forced the Slavs to pay tribute.<ref>Curta (2011), p. 126</ref>

[[File:Byzantine Greece ca 900 AD.svg|thumb|350px|A map of [[Byzantine Greece]] {{Circa|900 AD}}, with the themes and major settlements]]
From the mid-9th century, following a [[Siege of Patras (805 or 807)|Slavic revolt and attack]] on [[Patras]], a determined [[Hellenization]] process was carried out. According to the ''[[Chronicle of Monemvasia]]'', in 805 the Byzantine governor of [[Corinth]] went to war with the Slavs, exterminated them, and allowed the original inhabitants to claim their lands. They regained control of the city of Patras and the region was re-settled with Greeks.<ref>Fine (1983), pp. 80, 82</ref> Many Slavs were transported to [[Asia Minor]], and many Asian, Sicilian and Calabrian Greeks were resettled in the Peloponnese. By the turn of the 9th century, the entire Peloponnese was formed into the new ''thema'' of [[Peloponnesos (theme)|Peloponnesos]], with its capital at Corinth.<ref name="Fine61"/>

The imposition of Byzantine rule over the Slavic enclaves may have largely been a process of Christianization and accommodation of Slavic chieftains into the Imperial fold, as literary, [[epigraphic]] and [[sigillographic]] evidence testify to Slavic ''archontes'' participating in Imperial affairs.<ref>Curta (2011), p. 134</ref> By the end of the 9th century, the Peloponnese was culturally and administratively Greek again,<ref>Fine (1983), p. 79</ref> except for a few small Slavic tribes in the mountains such as the [[Melingoi]] and [[Ezeritai]]. Although they were to remain relatively autonomous until [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] times, such tribes were the exception rather than the rule.<ref>Fine (1983), p. 83</ref> Even the Melingoi and Ezeritai, however, could speak Greek and appear to have been Christian.<ref>Curta (2011), p. 285</ref>

The success of the Hellenization campaign also shows that the Slavs had settled among many Greeks, in contrast to areas further north in what is now Bulgaria and the former Yugoslavia, as those areas could not be Hellenized when they were recovered by the Byzantines in the early 11th century.<ref>Fine (1983), p. 64</ref> A human genetics study in 2017 showed that the Peloponnesians have little admixture with populations of the Slavic homeland and are much closer to Sicilians and southern Italians.<ref>[[Stamatoyannopoulos, George]] et al., [http://www.nature.com/ejhg/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/ejhg201718a.html Genetics of the Peloponnesian populations and the theory of extinction of the medieval Peloponnesian Greeks], European Journal of Human Genetics, 25.5 (2017), pp. 637–645</ref>

Apart from the troubled relations with the Slavs, the coastal regions of the Peloponnese suffered greatly from repeated Arab raids following the Arab capture of [[Crete]] in the 820s and the establishment of a [[Emirate of Crete|corsair emirate]] there.<ref name="ODB1621">Kazhdan (1991), p. 1621</ref><ref>Bées & Savvides (1993), p. 236</ref> After the island was recovered by Byzantium in 961 however, the region entered a period of renewed prosperity, where agriculture, commerce, and urban industry flourished.<ref name="ODB1621"/>

====Frankish rule and Byzantine reconquest====
{{main|Frankokratia|Principality of Achaea|Despotate of Morea}}
[[File:Castello Chlemoutsi.jpg|thumb|right|The Frankish castle of Clairmont ([[Chlemoutsi]])]]
[[File:Mystras palace.JPG|thumb|right|The court of the Byzantine despots in [[Mystras]], now a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]]]

In 1205, following the destruction of the Byzantine Empire by the forces of the [[Fourth Crusade]], the Crusaders under [[William of Champlitte]] and [[Geoffrey I of Villehardouin|Geoffrey of Villehardouin]] marched south through mainland Greece and conquered the Peloponnese against [[Battle of the Olive Grove of Koundouros|sporadic local Greek resistance]]. The [[Frangokratia|Franks]] then founded the [[Principality of Achaea]], nominally a [[vassal]] of the [[Latin Empire]], while the [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]] occupied several strategically important ports around the coast such as [[Pylos|Navarino]] and [[Koroni|Coron]], which they retained into the 15th century.<ref>Kazhdan (1991), pp. 11, 1621, 2158</ref> The Franks popularized the name ''[[Morea]]'' for the peninsula, which first appears as the name of a small bishopric in [[Ancient Elis|Elis]] during the 10th century. Its etymology is disputed, but it is most commonly held to be derived from the mulberry tree (''morea''), whose leaves are similar in shape to the peninsula.<ref>Kazhdan (1991), p. 1409</ref>

In 1208, William I founded a commission at [[Andravida]] consisted of Latin bishops, two [[banneret]]s and five Greek magnates and chaired by himself, to assess the land and divide it, according to Latin practice, in [[fief]]s. The result was divide the country into twelve [[feudal barony|baronies]], mostly centred around a newly constructed castle—a testament to the fact that the Franks were a military elite amidst a potentially hostile Greek population.<ref>Setton (1976), p. 30</ref><ref>Miller (1921), p. 71</ref> The twelve temporal barons were joined by seven ecclesiastic lords, headed by the [[Latin Archbishop of Patras]]. Each of the latter was granted a number of estates as [[knight]]ly fiefs, with the Archbishop receiving eight, the other bishops four each, and likewise four granted to each of the [[Military order (society)|military order]]s: the [[Templars]], [[Knights Hospitaller|Hospitallers]] and the [[Teutonic Knights]].<ref>Miller (1921), pp. 72–73</ref> Shortly after 1260, a thirteenth barony, that of [[Barony of Arcadia|Arcadia]] (modern [[Kyparissia]]) was established, which was also a personal fief of the Villehardouins.<ref name="Setton31">Setton (1976), p. 31</ref> The barons retained considerable powers and privileges, so that the Prince was not an absolute sovereign but rather a "first among equals" among them. Thus they had the right to construct a castle without the Prince's permission, or to decree [[capital punishment]]. Since [[Salic Law]] was not adopted in Achaea, women could also inherit the fiefs.<ref>Miller (1921), p. 74</ref> 

====Despotate of Morea and Ottoman incursions====
Frankish supremacy in the peninsula, however, received a critical blow after the [[Battle of Pelagonia]], when [[William II of Villehardouin]] was forced to cede the newly constructed fortress and palace at [[Mystras]] near ancient [[Sparta]] to a resurgent Byzantium. At this point, the emperor concluded an agreement with the captive prince: William and his men would be set free in exchange for an oath of fealty, and for the cession of Monemvasia, Grand Magne, and Mystras.{{sfn|Bon|1969|pp=122–125}} The handover was effected in 1262, and henceforth Mystras was the seat of the governor of the Byzantine territories in the Morea. Initially this governor (''[[kephale (Byzantine Empire)|kephale]]'') was changed every year, but after 1308 they started being appointed for longer terms.{{sfn|Gregory|Ševčenko|1991|p=1382}} Almost immediately on his return to the Morea, William of Villehardouin renounced his oath to the emperor, and warfare broke out between Byzantines and Franks. The first Byzantine attempts to subdue the Principality of Achaea were beaten back in the battles of [[Battle of Prinitsa|Prinitsa]] and [[Battle of Makryplagi|Makryplagi]], but the Byzantines were firmly ensconced in Laconia. Warfare became endemic, and the Byzantines slowly pushed the Franks back.{{sfn|Bon|1969|pp=129ff.}} The insecurity engendered by the raids and counter-raids caused the inhabitants of Lacedaemon to abandon their exposed city and settle at Mystras, in a new town built under the shadow of the fortress.

While Mystras served as the provincial capital from this time, it became a royal capital in 1349, when the first despot was appointed to rule over the Morea. The Byzantine Emperor [[John VI Kantakouzenos]], reorganized the territory in 1349 to establish it as an [[appanage]] for his son, the [[Despot (court title)|Despot]] [[Manuel Kantakouzenos]]. Around that time, the [[Ottoman Turks]] began raiding the Peloponnese, but their raids intensified only after 1387 when the energetic [[Evrenos Bey]] took control. Exploiting the quarrels between Byzantines and Franks, he plundered across the peninsula and forced both the Byzantine despots and the remaining Frankish rulers to acknowledge Ottoman suzerainty and pay tribute. This situation lasted until the Ottoman defeat at the [[Battle of Ankara]] in 1402, after which Ottoman power was for a time checked.<ref name="EI2-237">Bées & Savvides (1993), p. 237</ref> From 1349 until its surrender to the [[Ottoman Turks]] on 31 May 1460, Mystras was the residence of a [[Despot (court title)|Despot]] who ruled over the Byzantine Morea, known as the "[[Despotate of the Morea]]". For the larger portion of his reign, Manuel maintained peaceful relations with his Latin neighbors and secured a long period of prosperity for the area. Greco-Latin cooperation included an alliance to contain the raids of the Ottoman Sultan [[Murad I]] into Morea in the 1360s. The rival [[Palaiologos]] dynasty seized the Morea after Manuel's death in 1380, with [[Theodore I Palaiologos]] becoming despot in 1383. 

Theodore I ruled until 1407, consolidating Byzantine rule and coming to terms with his more powerful neighbours—particularly the expansionist [[Ottoman Empire]], whose [[suzerainty]] he recognised.{{sfn|Runciman|2009}} Subsequent despots were the sons of the Emperor [[Manuel II Palaiologos]], brother of the despot Theodore: Theodore II, Constantine, Demetrios, and Thomas. As Latin power in the Peloponnese waned during the 15th century, the Despotate of the Morea expanded to incorporate the entire peninsula in 1430 with territory being acquired by dowry settlements, and the conquest of [[Patras]] by Constantine. However, in 1446 the Ottoman Sultan [[Murad II]] destroyed the Byzantine defences—the [[Hexamilion wall]] at the [[Isthmus of Corinth]].{{sfn|Rosser|2011|page=335}} His attack opened the peninsula to invasion, though Murad died before he could exploit this. His successor [[Mehmed II]] "the Conqueror" [[Fall of Constantinople|captured]] the Byzantine capital [[Constantinople]] in 1453. The despots, [[Demetrios Palaiologos]] and [[Thomas Palaiologos]], brothers of the last emperor, failed to send him any aid, as Morea was recovering from a recent Ottoman attack. Their own incompetence resulted in the [[Morea revolt of 1453–1454]] led by [[Manuel Kantakouzenos (usurper)|Manuel Kantakouzenos]] against them, during which they invited in Ottoman troops to help them put down the revolt. At this time, the [[Greeks|Greek]] ''archons'' made peace with Mehmed.<ref>[http://angiolello.net/ARCHONS.pdf Contemporary Copy of the Letter of Mehmet II to the Greek Archons 26 December 1454 (ASV Documenti Turchi B.1/11)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727041148/http://angiolello.net/ARCHONS.pdf |date=27 July 2013}}</ref> After more years of incompetent rule by the despots, their failure to pay their annual tribute to the Sultan, and finally their own revolt against Ottoman rule, Mehmed came into the Morea in May 1460. Demetrios ended up a prisoner of the Ottomans and his younger brother Thomas fled. By the end of the summer the Ottomans had achieved the submission of virtually all cities possessed by the [[Greeks]].

Ottoman incursions into the Morea resumed under [[Turahan Bey]] after 1423. Despite the reconstruction of the Hexamilion wall at the Isthmus of Corinth, the Ottomans under [[Murad II]] breached it in 1446, forcing the Despots of the Morea to re-acknowledge Ottoman suzerainty, and again under Turahan in 1452 and 1456. Following the occupation of the [[Duchy of Athens]] in 1456, the Ottomans occupied a third of the Peloponnese in 1458, and Sultan [[Mehmed II]] extinguished the remnants of the Despotate in 1460. A few holdouts remained for a time. The rocky peninsula of [[Monemvasia]] refused to surrender, and it was first ruled for a brief time by a Catalan corsair. When the population drove him out, they obtained the consent of Thomas to submit to the Pope's protection before the end of 1460. The [[Mani Peninsula]] at the south end of the Morea resisted under a loose coalition of the local clans, and that area then came under [[Venice]]'s rule. The last holdout was [[Salmeniko]], in the Morea's northwest. [[Graitzas Palaiologos]] was the military commander there, stationed at [[Salmeniko Castle]]. While the town eventually surrendered, Graitzas and his garrison and some town residents held out in the castle until July 1461, when they escaped and reached Venetian territory.<ref name="EI2-237"/> Only the [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]] fortresses of [[Methoni, Messenia|Modon]], [[Koroni|Coron]], [[Pylos|Navarino]], [[Monemvasia]], [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]] and [[Nauplion]] escaped Ottoman control.<ref name="EI2-237"/>

====Albanian migration, settlement and relocations to Italy====
[[File:Pelopones ethnic.JPG|thumb|Ethnographic map of the Peloponnese, 1890]]
The same period was also marked by the migration and settlement of [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Christian]] [[Albanians]] to parts of Central Greece and the Peloponnese, a group that eventually became known as the [[Arvanites]]<ref name="WaldmanMason2006">{{cite book | author1 = Carl Waldman | author2 = Catherine Mason | date = 2006 | title = Encyclopedia of European Peoples | publisher = Infobase Publishing | pages = 39| isbn = 978-1-4381-2918-1 | oclc = 466183733 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kfv6HKXErqAC}}</ref><ref>Obolensky (1971), p. 8</ref> The Albanians settled in successive waves, often invited by the local rulers. They start appearing more frequently in the historical record from during the second part of the 14th century, when they were being offered arable land, pasture and favorable taxation in exchange for military service.<ref>{{Citation | first = Georgios | last = Liakopoulos | title = The Early Ottoman Peloponnese: a study in the light of an annotated edition princeps of the TT10-1/14662 Ottoman taxation cadastre (ca. 1460-1463) | publisher = Ginko | year = 2019 | page = 213 | quote = "During the rule of Manuel Cantacuzenus in Mystras (1348-1380), Albanians were mentioned in the Veligosti area"... "in the late 1370s and the early 1380s Neri Acciamoli, the lord of Corinth, in his confrontation with the Navarrese recruited [800] Albanian mercenaries"..."By 1391 there was an influx of Albanians that could be hired as mercenaries"... "The Venetians were in need of colonists and soldiers in their depopulated areas and hence offered plots of arable land, pastures and tax exemptions to the wandering Albanians in southern Greece"}}</ref> One of the larger groups of Albanian settlers, amounting to 10,000, settled the Peloponnese during the reign of [[Theodore I Palaiologos]], first in [[Arcadia (regional unit)|Arcadia]] and subsequently in other regions around [[Messenia]], [[Argolis]], [[Elis]] and [[Achaia]]. Around 1418, a second large group arrived, possibly fleeing [[Aetolia]], [[Acarnania]] and [[Arta (regional unit)|Arta]], where Albanian political power had been defeated. The settling Albanians lived in tribes spread out into small villages, practicing nomadic lifestyles based on pastoralism and animal husbandry. By the mid-15th century, they formed a substantial part of the population of the Peloponnesus.<ref>{{Citation | first = Georgios | last = Liakopoulos | title = The Early Ottoman Peloponnese: a study in the light of an annotated edition princeps of the TT10-1/14662 Ottoman taxation cadastre (ca. 1460-1463) | publisher = Ginko | year = 2019 | page = 214 | quote = "...Albanian nomadic clans, who formed populous groups consisting of families, or tribes. They came to the Peloponnese carrying their animals and movable goods and offered military service in return for being allowed to settle, and enjoy free movement and tax exemption."}}</ref> In the second half of the 15th century, Albanians constituted at least one-third of the population of the Peloponnese.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fischer |first1=Bernd J. |title=A concise history of Albania |date=2022 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom ; New York, NY |isbn=9781139084611 |page=38}}</ref> Military sources of the era (1425) report about 30,000 Albanian men who could carry arms in the Peloponnese.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sasse |first1=Hans-Jürgen |title=Arvanitika: the long Hellenic centuries of an Albanian variety |journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language |date=1974 |volume=132-134 |page=61 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gtVoAAAAIAAJ |quote=Military reports give us fairly accurate data for the time of the colonization : sources report 30,000 Albanian men fit for military service on the Peloponnese around 1425 .}}</ref> The Greeks tended to live in large villages and cities, while Albanians in small villages.<ref>{{harvnb|Liakopoulos|2015|p=114}}</ref> 

Following Ottoman conquest, many Albanians fled to Italy, settling primarily in nowadays [[Arbereshe people|Arbereshe]] villages of [[Calabria]] and [[Sicily]]. On the other hand, in an effort to control the remaining Albanians, during the second half of the 15th century, the Ottomans adopted favorable tax policies towards them, likely in continuation of similar Byzantine practices. This policy had been discontinued by the early 16th century.<ref>{{Citation | first = Georgios | last = Liakopoulos | title = The Early Ottoman Peloponnese: a study in the light of an annotated edition princeps of the TT10-1/14662 Ottoman taxation cadastre (ca. 1460-1463) | publisher = Ginko | year = 2019 | page = 214 | quote = "the main reason for placing them in a different category in the cadastre is the 20% reduction on the ispence encumbrance (20 akces instead of the 25 the Greeks paid). This most probably mirrors a late Byzantine and Venetian practice that the Ottomans adopted to control the intractable Albanians"..."Within half a century, the favorable taxation terms granted to the Albanians had ceased to exist"}}</ref> Throughout the [[Ottoman–Venetian wars]], many Albanians died or were captured in service to the Venetians; at [[Nafpaktos]], [[Nafplio]], [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]], [[Methoni, Messenia|Methoni]], [[Koroni]] and [[Pylos]]. Furthermore, 8,000 Albanian [[stratioti]], most of them along with their families, left the Peloponnese to continue their military service under the [[Republic of Venice]] or the [[Kingdom of Naples]]. At the end of the Ottoman–Venetian wars, a large number of Albanians had fled from the Peloponnese to Sicily.<ref>{{harvnb|Biris|1998|p=340}}</ref>

A demographic census by [[Alfred Philippson]], based on fieldwork between 1887 and 1889, found that out of the approximately 730,000 inhabitants of the Peloponnese, and the three neighboring islands of [[Poros]], [[Hydra (island)|Hydra]] and [[Spetses]], Arvanites numbered 90,253, or 12.3% of the total population.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sasse |first=Hans-Jürgen |date=1998 |title=Arvanitika: The long Hellenic centuries of an Albanian variety |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/ijsl.1998.134.39/html |journal=[[International Journal of the Sociology of Language]] |issue=134 |page=61 |doi=10.1515/ijsl.1998.134.39 |issn=1613-3668 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Philippson |first=Alfred |date=1890 |editor-last=Supan |editor-first=Alexander Georg |title=Zur ethnographie des Peloponnes |url=https://zs.thulb.uni-jena.de/rsc/viewer/jportal_derivate_00256033/ThULB_129489824_1890_Perthes_0043.tif |journal=[[:w:de:Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen|Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen]] |publisher=[[Justus Perthes (publishing company)|Justus Perthes]] |volume=36 |pages=33–34 |issn=0031-6229 |language=de}}</ref>