Editing Pannonia (section)

=== Under the Antonines ===
{{Further information|Nerva–Antonine dynasty}}

We hear of war with the Danubian Germans again under [[Nerva]] ({{Reign|96|98}}).<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=93}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=90}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=23}}</ref>
[[File:Pannonia02.png|thumb|172x172px|The divided Pannonia in the second century AD]]
Between 103 and 107, [[Trajan]] ({{Reign|98|117}}) executed the division of the province into [[Pannonia Inferior]] and [[Pannonia Superior]]. This allowed the Empire to better combat the radically different Germanic and Sarmatian tribes.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=93}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=98}}</ref> While Superior had most urbanized areas and a shorter frontier with three legions, Inferior contained one ''[[municipium]]'' and one legion, virtually being a border zone.{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974a|p=99}} Under his reign, the placement of garrison and the main lines of commerce became permanent.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=94}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=102}}</ref>

The creation of [[Roman Dacia]] had a great effect on Pannonia. In [[Trajan's Dacian Wars]], the Iazyges allied with the Romans, seeking to retain [[Oltenia]] where they were expelled by Decebalus. A brief confrontation in 107 was resolved [[Hadrian]], then-governor of Pannonia Inferior and it may have been agreed that the nomads would instead take possession of the region between the Tisza and the [[Apuseni Mountains]], not incorporated into the new province.{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974a|p=103}} However, taking advantage of Trajan's death and the preoccupation of the Empire with the [[Trajan's Parthian campaign|Parthian war]], they joined forces with the relative [[Roxolani]] and attacked again in 117, to which Dacia's governor, [[Gaius Julius Quadratus Bassus|Julius Quadratus Bassus]] fell victim. Hadrian ({{Reign|117|138}}) traveled to the spot and invested [[Marcius Turbo]] as governor of both Dacia and Pannonia Inferior to defeat the barbarians. The Roxolani were pacified first. Turbo's authorization was over in 119 as Iazyx peace envoys appeared in Rome.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=94}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=104}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|pp=24–25}}</ref> The postal connection between the two provinces through the Danube–Tisza Interfluve—which aggravated relations with the Sarmatians—was completed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=94}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=104}}</ref>

War with the Quadi broke out again in the last years of Hadrian's reign, which his adopted son and joint governor of the Pannonian provinces, [[Aelius Caesar]] successfully handled until he died in 138. Command of Pannonia Superior was taken over by [[Titus Haterius Nepos (consul)|Haterius Nepos]], who ended the war with a Roman victory, becoming the last person to be awarded with ''[[ornamenta triumphalia]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=95}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=106}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=25}}</ref>
[[File:REX QUADIS DATUS.jpg|thumb|136x136px|The coin of Pius (reverse), with the circumscription REX QUADIS DATUS]]
Under [[Antoninus Pius]]'s ({{Reign|138|161}}) quiet reign, some coins were issued propagating not the ending of a new campaign but the reestablishment of ''[[Foederati|foederatus]]'' relationship by the investiture of a new Quadi king. Discharges and detachments of troops happened.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=95}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|pp=106–107}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=25}}</ref>

Findings of hoards of coins likely buried during the rule of [[Marcus Aurelius]] ({{Reign|161|180}}) evidence turmoil due to barbarian attacks.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=95}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|pp=107–108}}</ref> Large-scale population movements in [[Northern Europe|Northern]] and [[Eastern Europe]] related to the [[Goths]] highly endangered Rome's clients, who wanted the Empire to give its lands to settlement and extend its protection over the tribes. Rome was unwilling to grant these requests.{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974b|pp=9-10}} The Romans may not have been aware of the dangerous situation at the start of the [[Parthian war of Lucius Verus]] because they sent a whole legion and many ''[[vexillatio]]nes'' away from Pannonia. It is thanks to the diplomatic efforts made by regional governors that tensions were eased until the dispatched forces could get back. When the threat became fully clear, Marcus even raised new legions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=96}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974b|p=7}}</ref> The first attack came in the winter of 166-167, from the [[Lombards]] and [[Ubii]], between [[Brigetio]] and [[Arrabona]]. It was quickly repulsed by two auxiliary units. [[Cassius Dio]] tells of a legation of 11 tribes led by the Marcomanni subsequently petitioning the governor of Pannonia Superior, [[Marcus Iallius Bassus|Iallius Bassus]] to concede. This may have been the last attempt at making peace, as next, a barbarian coalition formed to fight Rome.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=97}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974b|pp=10–12}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=30}}</ref>

In 168, Marcus and [[Lucius Verus|Verus]] returned to Aquileia and set up their base there. The Marcomanni and Quadi broke through the border and the Alps' crosses, besieging the city and burning the small town of [[Opitergium]]. The peak of the [[Antonine Plague]] in the peninsula was at this time, causing Verus's death. The next years' heavy fighting resulted in the death of governor of Moesia Superior and Dacia [[Marcus Claudius Fronto|Claudius Fronto]] and [[praetorian prefect]] [[Marcus Macrinius Vindex|Macrinius Vindex]]. [[Claudius Pompeianus]] and future-emperor [[Pertinax]] returned part of the spoils taken by the enemy and led the offensive starting from 172. Against severe losses, the Romans forced first the Quadi, then the Marcomanni to surrender (172-173), while the military emphasis shifted to the Iazyges. Despite the winter incursion of the Iazyges was crushed (173-174), the Quadi overthrew their Roman-installed king and started to support the nomads. While the two nations tried to negotiate, Marcus eventually defeated both of them in separate campaigns.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|pp=97–98}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974b|pp=11–16}}</ref>

The second phase of the war started in 177. The attacking barbarians were kept in check, with Marcus and his son, the newly acclaimed [[Commodus]] ({{Reign|177|192}}) coming to Pannonia. A decisive campaign by [[Publius Tarrutenius Paternus|Tarrutenius Paternus]] in 179 convinced the Iazyges to make peace. In the same year, the land of the Danubian Germans was occupied by a force Cassius Dio claims to be 40,000 men—the number of soldiers stationed in Pannonia Inferior and Pannonia Superior combined. Control over tribes was taken over by prefects. [[Marcus Valerius Maximianus|Valerius Maximianus]], born in Pannonia, was an important general here.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=98}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974b|p=17}}</ref> Any possible plans with the creation of two new provinces—Marcomannia and Sarmatia—were aborted after the death of Marcus in 180. Commodus returned to the old border and client system, to which new residents were seemingly willing to join. As the barbarians pillaged during the war, taking cattle and captives away en masse, the destruction and loss of life in Pannonia was huge.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=99}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974b|pp=18–22}}</ref>

Commodus vigorously started to strengthen the ''limes'' with new fortifications. Minor raids on the province continued to occur, prompting a third campaign over the Danube at about. This campaign was smaller, and its leader, [[Tigidius Perennis]], achieved a victory. Another victorious expedition was conducted in 188.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=99}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974b|p=25}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=27}}</ref>