Editing Palaeography (section)

=== Ptolemaic period ===
[[File:P.Berol. inv. 9875 col. v coronis.jpg|thumb|left|Detail of the [[Berlin]] papyrus 9875 showing the 5th column of [[Timotheus of Miletus|Timotheus']] ''Persae'', with a [[Coronis (textual symbol)|coronis]] symbol to mark the end]]

The earliest Greek papyrus yet discovered is probably that containing the ''Persae'' of [[Timotheus of Miletus|Timotheus]], which dates from the second half of the 4th century BC and its script has a curiously archaic appearance. {{angbr|E}}, {{angbr|Σ}}, and {{angbr|Ω}} have the capital form, and apart from these test letters the general effect is one of stiffness and angularity.<ref>Fragments of Timotheus' poetry survive, published in T. Bergk, ''Poetae lyrici graeci''. The cit. papyrus-fragment of his ''Persae (Persians)'' was discovered at [[Abusir]] and has been edited by [[Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff]], ''Der Timotheos-Papyrus gefunden bei Abusir am 1. Februar 1902'', Leipzig: Hinrichs (1903), with content discussion. Cf. V. Strazzulla, ''Persiani di Eschilo ed il nomo di Timoteo'' (1904); S. Sudhaus in ''Rhein. Mus.'', iviii. (1903), p. 481; and T. Reinach and M. Croiset in ''Revue des etudes grecques'', xvi. (1903), pp. 62, 323.</ref> More striking is the hand of the earliest dated papyrus, a contract of 311&nbsp;BC. Written with more ease and elegance, it shows little trace of any development towards a truly [[cursive]] style; the letters are not linked, and though the uncial {{angbr|c}} is used throughout, {{angbr|E}} and {{angbr|Ω}} have the capital forms. A similar impression is made by the few other papyri, chiefly literary, dating from about 300&nbsp;BC; {{angbr|E}} may be slightly rounded, {{angbr|Ω}} approach the uncial form, and the angular {{angbr|Σ}} occurs as a letter only in the Timotheus papyrus, though it survived longer as a numeral (= 200), but the hands hardly suggest that for at least a century and a half the art of writing on papyrus had been well established. Yet before the middle of the 3rd century BC, one finds both a practised book-hand and a developed and often remarkably handsome cursive.

These facts may be due to accident, the few early papyri happening to represent an archaic style which had survived along with a more advanced one; but it is likely that there was a rapid development at this period, due partly to the opening of Egypt, with its supplies of papyri, and still more to the establishment of the great [[Alexandrian Library]], which systematically copied literary and scientific works, and to the multifarious activities of [[Hellenistic]] bureaucracy. From here onward, the two types of script were sufficiently distinct (though each influenced the other) to require separate treatment. Some literary papyri, like the roll containing [[Aristotle]]'s ''[[Constitution of the Athenians (Aristotle)|Constitution of Athens]]'', were written in cursive hands, and, conversely, the book-hand was occasionally used for documents. Since the scribe did not date literary rolls, such papyri are useful in tracing the development of the book-hand.<ref name="Bell" />

The documents of the mid-3rd century BC show a great variety of [[cursive]] hands. There are none from chancelleries of the Hellenistic monarchs, but some letters, notably those of [[Apollonius of Rhodes|Apollonius]], the finance minister of [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus|Ptolemy II]], to this agent, Zeno, and those of the Palestinian sheikh, Toubias, are in a type of script which cannot be very unlike the [[Chancery hand]] of the time, and show the Ptolemaic cursive at its best. These hands have a noble spaciousness and strength, and though the individual letters are by no means uniform in size there is a real unity of style, the general impression being one of breadth and uprightness. {{angbr|H}}, with the cross-stroke high, {{angbr|Π}}, {{angbr|Μ}}, with the middle stroke reduced to a very shallow curve, sometimes approaching a horizontal line, {{angbr|Υ}}, and {{angbr|Τ}}, with its cross-bar extending much further to the left than to the right of the up-stroke, {{angbr|Γ}} and {{angbr|Ν}}, whose last stroke is prolonged upwards above the line, often curving backwards, are all broad; {{angbr|ε}}, {{angbr|c}}, {{angbr|θ}} and {{angbr|β}}, which sometimes takes the form of two almost perpendicular strokes joined only at the top, are usually small; {{angbr|ω}} is rather flat, its second loop reduced to a practically straight line. Partly by the broad flat tops of the larger letters, partly by the insertion of a stroke connecting those (like H, Υ) which are not naturally adapted to linking, the scribes produced the effect of a horizontal line along the top of the writing, from which the letters seem to hang. This feature is indeed a general characteristic of the more formal Ptolemaic script, but it is specially marked in the 3rd century BC.

[[File:The Derveni Papyrus.jpg|thumb|The [[Derveni Papyrus]], a Greek Macedonian philosophical text dating {{c|340 BC}}, considered Europe's oldest manuscript]]

Besides these hand of Chancery type, there are numerous less elaborate examples of cursive, varying according to the writer's skill and degree of education, and many of them strikingly easy and handsome.{{According to whom|date=April 2013}} In some cursiveness is carried very far, the linking of letters reaching the point of illegibility, and the characters sloping to the right. {{angbr|A}} is reduced to a mere acute angle (<big>{{angbr|∠}}</big>), {{angbr|T}} has the cross-stroke only on the left, {{angbr|ω}} becomes an almost straight line, {{angbr|H}} acquires a shape somewhat like <big>h</big>, and the last stroke of {{angbr|N}} is extended far upwards and at times flattened out until it is little more than a diagonal stroke to the right. The attempt to secure a horizontal line along the top is here abandoned. This style was not due to inexpertness, but to the desire for speed, being used especially in accounts and drafts, and was generally the work of practised writers. How well established the cursive hand had now become is shown in some wax tablets of this period, the writing on which, despite the difference of material, closely resemble the hands of papyri.<ref>Wax tablets of this period are preserved at the [[University College London]], cf. ''Speaking in the Wax Tablets of Memory'', Agocs, PA (2013). In: Castagnoli, L. and Ceccarelli, P, (eds.), Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.</ref>

Documents of the late 3rd and early 2nd centuries BC show there is nothing analogous to the Apollonius letters, perhaps partly by the accident of survival. In the more formal types the letters stand rather stiffly upright, often without the linking strokes, and are more uniform in size; in the more cursive they are apt to be packed closely together. These features are more marked in the hands of the 2nd century. The less cursive often show am approximation to the book-hand, the letters growing rounder and less angular than in the 3rd century; in the more cursive linking was carried further, both by the insertion of coupling strokes and by the writing of several letters continuously without raising the pen, so that before the end of the century an almost current hand was evolved. A characteristic letter, which survived into the early Roman period, is {{angbr|T}}, with its cross-stroke made in two portions (variants:[[File:Greek cursive variants Tau.svg|70px]]). In the 1st century, the hand tended, so far as can be inferred from surviving examples, to disintegrate; one can recognise the signs which portend a change of style, irregularity, want of direction, and the loss of the feeling for style. A fortunate accident has preserved two Greek [[parchment]]s written in [[Parthia]], one dated 88&nbsp;BC, in a practically unligatured hand, the other, 22/21&nbsp;BC, in a very cursive script of Ptolemaic type; and though each has non-Egyptian features the general character indicates a uniformity of style in the Hellenistic world.<ref name="Bell" />

The development of the Ptolemaic book-hand is difficult to trace, as there are few examples, mostly not datable on external grounds. Only for the 3rd century BC have we a secure basis. The hands of that period have an angular appearance; there is little uniformity in the size of individual letters, and though sometimes, notably in the [[Flinders Petrie|Petrie papyrus]] containing the ''[[Phaedo]]'' of [[Plato]], a style of considerable delicacy is attained, the book-hand in general shows less mastery than the contemporary cursive. In the 2nd century, the letters grew rounder and more uniform in size, but in the 1st century there is a certain disintegration perceptible, as in the cursive hand. Probably at no time did the Ptolemaic book-hand acquire such unity of stylistic effect as the cursive.<ref>Cf. {{cite journal |first=Lewis |last=Campbell |title=On the Text of the Papyrus Fragment of the Phaedo |journal=Classical Review |volume=5 |issue=10 |year=1891 |pages=454–457 |doi=10.1017/S0009840X00179582 |s2cid=162051928 }}</ref>