Editing Ovid (section)

==Works==

===''Heroides'' ("The Heroines")===
[[Image:Herkulaneischer Meister 001.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Medea]] in a fresco from [[Herculaneum]]]]
{{Main| Heroides}}
{{See also| Double Heroides}}

The ''Heroides'' ("Heroines") or ''Epistulae Heroidum'' are a collection of twenty-one poems in elegiac couplets. The ''Heroides'' take the form of letters addressed by famous mythological characters to their partners expressing their emotions at being separated from them, pleas for their return, and allusions to their future actions within their own mythology. The authenticity of the collection, partially or as a whole, has been questioned, although most scholars would consider the letters mentioned specifically in Ovid's description of the work at ''Am.'' 2.18.19–26 as safe from objection. The collection comprises a new type of generic composition without parallel in earlier literature.<ref>Knox, P. ''Ovid's Heroides: Select Epistles'' (Cambridge, 1995) pp. 14ff.</ref>

The first fourteen letters are thought to comprise the first published collection and are written by the heroines [[Penelope]], [[Phyllis (mythology)|Phyllis]], [[Briseis]], [[Phaedra (mythology)|Phaedra]], [[Oenone]], [[Hypsipyle]], [[Dido (Queen of Carthage)|Dido]], [[Hermione (mythology)|Hermione]], [[Deianeira]], [[Ariadne]], [[Canace]], [[Medea]], [[Laodamia of Phylace|Laodamia]], and [[Hypermnestra]] to their absent male lovers. Letter 15, from the historical [[Sappho]] to [[Phaon]], seems spurious (although referred to in ''Am.'' 2.18) because of its length, its lack of integration in the mythological theme, and its absence from Medieval manuscripts.<ref>Knox, P. pp. 12–13</ref> The final letters (16–21) are paired compositions comprising a letter to a lover and a reply. [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] and [[Helen of Troy|Helen]], [[Hero and Leander]], and [[Acontius]] and [[Cydippe]] are the addressees of the paired letters. These are considered a later addition to the corpus because they are never mentioned by Ovid and may or may not be spurious.

The ''Heroides'' markedly reveal the influence of rhetorical declamation and may derive from Ovid's interest in rhetorical ''[[suasoria]]e'', persuasive speeches, and ''[[ethopoeia]]'', the practice of speaking in another character. They also play with generic conventions; most of the letters seem to refer to works in which these characters were significant, such as the ''[[Aeneid]]'' in the case of Dido and [[Catullus]] 64 for Ariadne, and transfer characters from the genres of epic and tragedy to the elegiac genre of the ''Heroides''.<ref>Knox, P. pp. 18ff.</ref> The letters have been admired for their deep psychological portrayals of mythical characters, their rhetoric, and their unique attitude to the classical tradition of mythology.{{by whom|date=November 2015}} They also contribute significantly to conversations on how gender and identity were constructed in Augustan Rome.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lindheim |first1=Sara H. |title=Mail and Female: Epistolary Narrative and Desire in Ovid's Heroides |date=2003 |publisher=The University of Wisconsin Press}}</ref>

A popular quote from the Heroides anticipates Machiavelli's "the end justifies the means". Ovid had written "Exitus acta probat" – the result justifies the means.

===''Amores'' ("The Loves")===
{{Main| Amores (Ovid)}}

The ''Amores'' is a collection in three books of love poetry in elegiac meter, following the conventions of the elegiac genre developed by [[Tibullus]] and [[Propertius]]. Elegy originates with Propertius and Tibullus, but Ovid is an innovator in the genre. Ovid changes the leader of his elegies from the poet, to Amor (Love or Cupid). This switch in focus from the triumphs of the poet, to the triumphs of love over people is the first of its kind for this genre of poetry. This Ovidian innovation can be summarized as the use of love as a metaphor for poetry.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Athanassaki|first1=Lucia|title=The Triumph of Love in Ovid's Amores 1, 2|journal=Materiali e Discussioni per l'Analisi dei Testi Classici|date=1992|volume=28|issue=28|pages=125–41|doi=10.2307/40236002|jstor=40236002}}</ref> The books describe the many aspects of love and focus on the poet's relationship with a mistress called Corinna. Within the various poems, several describe events in the relationship, thus presenting the reader with some vignettes and a loose narrative.

Book 1 contains 15 poems. The first tells of Ovid's intention to write epic poetry, which is thwarted when [[Cupid]] steals a metrical foot from him, changing his work into love elegy.
Poem 4 is didactic and describes principles that Ovid would develop in the {{Lang|la|[[Ars Amatoria]]}}. The fifth poem, describing a noon tryst, introduces Corinna by name. Poems 8 and 9 deal with Corinna selling her love for gifts, while 11 and 12 describe the poet's failed attempt to arrange a meeting. Poem 14 discusses Corinna's disastrous experiment in dyeing her hair and 15 stresses the immortality of Ovid and love poets.

The second book has 19 pieces; the opening poem tells of Ovid's abandonment of a [[Gigantomachy]] in favor of [[elegy]]. Poems 2 and 3 are entreaties to a guardian to let the poet see Corinna, poem 6 is a lament for Corinna's dead parrot; poems 7 and 8 deal with Ovid's affair with Corinna's servant and her discovery of it, and 11 and 12 try to prevent Corinna from going on vacation. Poem 13 is a prayer to [[Isis]] for Corinna's illness, 14 a poem against abortion, and 19 a warning to unwary husbands.

Book 3 has 15 poems. The opening piece depicts personified Tragedy and Elegy fighting over Ovid. Poem 2 describes a visit to the races, 3 and 8 focus on Corinna's interest in other men, 10 is a complaint to [[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]] because of her festival that requires abstinence, 13 is a poem on a festival of [[Juno (mythology)|Juno]], and 9 a lament for [[Tibullus]]. In poem 11 Ovid decides not to love Corinna any longer and regrets the poems he has written about her. The final poem is Ovid's farewell to the erotic muse. Critics have seen the poems as highly self-conscious and extremely playful specimens of the elegiac genre.<ref>Conte, G. p. 343</ref>

===''Medicamina Faciei Femineae'' ("Women's Facial Cosmetics")===
{{Main| Medicamina Faciei Femineae}}

About a hundred elegiac lines survive from this poem on beauty treatments for women's faces, which seems to parody serious didactic poetry. The poem says that women should concern themselves first with manners and then prescribes several compounds for facial treatments before breaking off. The style is not unlike the shorter [[Hellenistic]] didactic works of [[Nicander]] and [[Aratus]].

===''Ars Amatoria'' ("The Art of Love")===
{{Main| Ars Amatoria}}
<blockquote><poem>
      Si quis in hoc artem populo non novit amandi,
           hoc legat et lecto carmine doctus amet.<ref>Book 1 Verse 1,  2: "If you do not know the art of love, read my book, and you will be a 'doctor' of love in the future".</ref>
</poem></blockquote>

The ''Ars Amatoria'' is a didactic elegiac poem in three books that sets out to teach the arts of seduction and love. The first book addresses men and teaches them how to seduce women, the second, also to men, teaches how to keep a lover. The third addresses women and teaches seduction techniques. The first book opens with an invocation to Venus, in which Ovid establishes himself as a ''praeceptor amoris'' (1.17)&nbsp;– a teacher of love. Ovid describes the places one can go to find a lover, like the theater, a triumph, which he thoroughly describes, or arena&nbsp;– and ways to get the girl to take notice, including seducing her covertly at a banquet. Choosing the right time is significant, as is getting into her associates' confidence.

Ovid emphasizes care of the body for the lover. Mythological digressions include a piece on the [[rape of the Sabine women]], [[Pasiphaë]], and [[Ariadne]]. Book 2 invokes Apollo and begins with a telling of the story of [[Icarus]]. Ovid advises men to avoid giving too many gifts, keep up their appearance, hide affairs, compliment their lovers, and ingratiate themselves with slaves to stay on their lover's good side. The care of Venus for procreation is described as is Apollo's aid in keeping a lover; Ovid then digresses on the story of [[Hephaestus#Hephaestus and Aphrodite|Vulcan's trap for Venus and Mars]]. The book ends with Ovid asking his "students" to spread his fame. Book 3 opens with a vindication of women's abilities and Ovid's resolution to arm women against his teaching in the first two books. Ovid gives women detailed instructions on appearance telling them to avoid too many adornments. He advises women to read elegiac poetry, learn to play games, sleep with people of different ages, flirt, and dissemble. Throughout the book, Ovid playfully interjects, criticizing himself for undoing all his didactic work to men and mythologically digresses on the story of [[Procris#Ovid|Procris]] and [[Cephalus#Husband of Procris|Cephalus]]. The book ends with his wish that women will follow his advice and spread his fame saying ''Naso magister erat'', "Ovid was our teacher". (Ovid was known as "Naso" to his contemporaries.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Liveley, Genevieve.|title=Ovid's Metamorphoses : a reader's guide|date=2011|publisher=Continuum|isbn=978-1-4411-7081-1|location=London|oclc=703573507}}</ref>)

===''Remedia Amoris'' ("The Cure for Love")===
{{Main| Remedia Amoris}}

This elegiac poem proposes a cure for the love Ovid teaches in the ''Ars Amatoria'', and is primarily addressed to men. The poem criticizes suicide as a means for escaping love and, invoking Apollo, goes on to tell lovers not to procrastinate and be lazy in dealing with love. Lovers are taught to avoid their partners, not perform magic, see their lover unprepared, take other lovers, and never be jealous. Old letters should be burned and the lover's family avoided. The poem throughout presents Ovid as a doctor and utilizes medical imagery. Some have interpreted this poem as the close of Ovid's didactic cycle of love poetry and the end of his erotic elegiac project.<ref>Conte, G. ''Latin Literature a History'' trans. J. Solodow (Baltimore, 1994) p. 346</ref>

===''Metamorphoses'' ("Transformations")===
[[File:Ovidius Metamorphosis - George Sandy's 1632 edition.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Engraved frontispiece of [[George Sandys]]'s 1632 London edition of ''Ovid's Metamorphoses Englished'']]
{{Main| Metamorphoses}}
The ''Metamorphoses'', Ovid's most ambitious and well-known work, consists of a 15-book catalogue written in [[dactylic hexameter]] about transformations in Greek and Roman mythology set within a loose mytho-historical framework. The word "metamorphoses" is of Greek origin and means "transformations". Appropriately, the characters in this work undergo many different transformations. Within an extent of nearly 12,000 verses, almost 250 different myths are mentioned. Each myth is set outdoors where the mortals are often vulnerable to external influences. The poem stands in the tradition of mythological and etiological catalogue poetry such as [[Hesiod]]'s ''[[Catalogue of Women]]'', [[Callimachus]]' ''[[Aetia (Callimachus)|Aetia]]'', [[Nicander]]'s ''Heteroeumena'', and [[Parthenius of Nicaea|Parthenius]]' ''Metamorphoses''.

The first book describes the formation of the world, the [[ages of man]], the [[Flood myth|flood]], the story of [[Daphne]]'s rape by Apollo and [[Io (mythology)|Io]]'s by Jupiter. The second book opens with [[Phaethon#Ovid|Phaethon]] and continues describing the love of Jupiter with [[Callisto (mythology)|Callisto]] and [[Europa (mythology)|Europa]]. The third book focuses on the mythology of [[Ancient Thebes (Boeotia)|Thebes]] with the stories of [[Cadmus]], [[Actaeon]], and [[Pentheus]]. The fourth book focuses on three pairs of lovers: [[Pyramus]] and [[Thisbe]], [[Salmacis]] and [[Hermaphroditus]], and [[Perseus]] and [[Andromeda (mythology)|Andromeda]]. The fifth book focuses on the song of the [[Muses]], which describes the rape of [[Proserpina]]. The sixth book is a collection of stories about the rivalry between gods and mortals, beginning with [[Arachne]] and ending with [[Philomela (princess of Athens)|Philomela]]. The seventh book focuses on [[Medea]], as well as [[Cephalus]] and [[Procris]]. The eighth book focuses on [[Daedalus]]' flight, the [[Calydonian boar]] hunt, and the contrast between pious [[Baucis and Philemon]] and the wicked [[Erysichthon of Thessaly|Erysichthon]]. The ninth book focuses on [[Heracles]] and the incestuous [[Byblis]]. The tenth book focuses on stories of doomed love, such as [[Orpheus]], who sings about [[Hyacinth (mythology)|Hyacinthus]], as well as [[Pygmalion (mythology)|Pygmalion]], [[Myrrha]], and [[Adonis]]. The eleventh book compares the marriage of [[Peleus]] and [[Thetis]] with the love of [[Ceyx]] and [[Alcyone]]. The twelfth book moves from myth to history describing the exploits of [[Achilles]], the [[Lapith#Centauromachy|battle of the centaurs]], and [[Iphigeneia]]. The thirteenth book discusses the [[Achilles#Fate of Achilles' armour|contest over Achilles' arms]], and [[Polyphemus]]. The fourteenth moves to Italy, describing the journey of [[Aeneas]], [[Pomona (mythology)|Pomona]] and [[Vertumnus]], and [[Romulus]] and [[Hersilia]]. The final book opens with a philosophical lecture by [[Pythagoras]] and the deification of [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]]. The end of the poem praises [[Augustus]] and expresses Ovid's belief that his poem has earned him immortality.

In analyzing the ''Metamorphoses'', scholars have focused on Ovid's organization of his vast body of material. The ways that stories are linked by geography, themes, or contrasts creates interesting effects and constantly forces the reader to evaluate the connections. Ovid also varies his tone and material from different literary genres; [[Gian Biagio Conte|G. B. Conte]] has called the poem "a sort of gallery of these various literary genres".<ref>Conte, G. p. 352</ref> In this spirit, Ovid engages creatively with his predecessors, alluding to the full spectrum of classical poetry. Ovid's use of Alexandrian epic, or elegiac couplets, shows his fusion of erotic and psychological style with traditional forms of epic.

A concept drawn from the Metamorphoses is the idea of the white lie or [[pious fraud]]: "pia mendacia fraude".

===''Fasti'' ("The Festivals")===
{{Main| Fasti (poem)}}

Six books in elegiacs survive of this second ambitious poem that Ovid was working on when he was exiled. The six books cover the first semester of the year, with each book dedicated to a different month of the [[Roman calendar]] (January to June). The project seems unprecedented in Roman literature. It seems that Ovid planned to cover the whole year, but was unable to finish because of his exile, although he did revise sections of the work at Tomis, and he claims at ''Trist.'' 2.549–52 that his work was interrupted after six books. Like the ''Metamorphoses'', the ''Fasti'' was to be a long poem and emulated etiological poetry by writers like [[Callimachus]] and, more recently, [[Propertius]] and his fourth book. The poem goes through the Roman calendar, explaining the origins and customs of important Roman festivals, digressing on mythical stories, and giving astronomical and agricultural information appropriate to the season. The poem was probably dedicated to [[Augustus]] initially, but perhaps the death of the emperor prompted Ovid to change the dedication to honor [[Germanicus]]. Ovid uses direct inquiry of gods and scholarly research to talk about the calendar and regularly calls himself a ''[[vates]]'', a seer. He also seems to emphasize unsavory, popular traditions of the festivals, imbuing the poem with a popular, [[plebeian]] flavor, which some have interpreted as subversive to the Augustan moral legislation.<ref>Herbert-Brown, G. "Fasti: the Poet, the Prince, and the Plebs" in Knox, P. (2009) pp. 126ff.</ref> While this poem has always been invaluable to students of Roman religion and culture for the wealth of antiquarian material it preserves, it recently has been seen as one of Ovid's finest literary works and a unique contribution to Roman elegiac poetry.

===''Ibis'' ("The Ibis")===
{{Main| Ibis (Ovid)}}

The ''Ibis'' is an elegiac poem in 644 lines, in which Ovid uses a dazzling array of mythic stories to curse and attack an enemy who is harming him in exile. At the beginning of the poem, Ovid claims that his poetry up to that point had been harmless, but now he is going to use his abilities to hurt his enemy. He cites Callimachus' ''Ibis'' as his inspiration and calls all the gods to make his curse effective. Ovid uses mythical exempla to condemn his enemy in the afterlife, cites evil prodigies that attended his birth, and then in the next 300 lines wishes that the torments of mythological characters befall his enemy. The poem ends with a prayer that the gods make his curse effective.

===''Tristia'' ("Sorrows")===
{{Main| Tristia}}

The ''Tristia'' consist of five books of elegiac poetry composed by Ovid in exile in Tomis.

Book 1 contains 11 poems; the first piece is an address by Ovid to his book about how it should act when it arrives in Rome. Poem 3 describes his final night in Rome, poems 2 and 10 Ovid's voyage to Tomis, 8 the betrayal of a friend, and 5 and 6 the loyalty of his friends and wife. In the final poem Ovid apologizes for the quality and tone of his book, a sentiment echoed throughout the collection.

Book 2 consists of one long poem in which Ovid defends himself and his poetry, uses precedents to justify his work, and begs the emperor for forgiveness.

Book 3 has 14 poems focusing on Ovid's life in Tomis. The opening poem describes his book's arrival in Rome to find Ovid's works banned. Poems 10, 12, and 13 focus on the seasons spent in Tomis, 9 on the origins of the place, and 2, 3, and 11 his emotional distress and longing for home. The final poem is again an apology for his work.

The fourth book has ten poems addressed mostly to friends. Poem 1 expresses his love of poetry and the solace it brings; while 2 describes a triumph of Tiberius. Poems 3–5 are to friends, 7 a request for correspondence, and 10 an autobiography.

The final book of the ''Tristia'' with 14 poems focuses on his wife and friends. Poems 4, 5, 11, and 14 are addressed to his wife, 2 and 3 are prayers to [[Augustus]] and [[Bacchus]], 4 and 6 are to friends, 8 to an enemy. Poem 13 asks for letters, while 1 and 12 are apologies to his readers for the quality of his poetry.

===''Epistulae ex Ponto'' ("Letters from the Black Sea")===
{{Main| Epistulae ex Ponto}}

The ''Epistulae ex Ponto'' is a collection in four books of further poetry from exile. The ''Epistulae'' are each addressed to a different friend and focus more desperately than the ''Tristia'' on securing his recall from exile. The poems mainly deal with requests for friends to speak on his behalf to members of the imperial family, discussions of writing with friends, and descriptions of life in exile. The first book has ten pieces in which Ovid describes the state of his health (10), his hopes, memories, and yearning for Rome (3, 6, 8), and his needs in exile (3). Book 2 contains impassioned requests to Germanicus (1 and 5) and various friends to speak on his behalf at Rome while he describes his despair and life in exile. Book 3 has nine poems in which Ovid addresses his wife (1) and various friends. It includes a telling of the story of [[Iphigenia#Among the Taurians|Iphigenia in Tauris]] (2), a poem against criticism (9), and a dream of Cupid (3). Book 4, the final work of Ovid, in 16 poems talks to friends and describes his life as an exile further. Poems 10 and 13 describe Winter and Spring at Tomis, poem 14 is halfhearted praise for Tomis, 7 describes its geography and climate, and 4 and 9 are congratulations on friends for their consulships and requests for help. Poem 12 is addressed to a Tuticanus, whose name, Ovid complains, does not fit into meter. The final poem is addressed to an enemy whom Ovid implores to leave him alone. The last elegiac couplet is translated: "Where's the joy in stabbing your steel into my dead flesh?/ There's no place left where I can be dealt fresh wounds."<ref>[http://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/OvidExPontoBkFour.htm PoetryInTranslation.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200108154119/https://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/OvidExPontoBkFour.php |date=8 January 2020 }}, a translation of all of Ovid's exile poetry can be found here by A. S. Kline, 2003</ref>

===Lost works===
One loss, which Ovid himself described, is the first five-book edition of the ''Amores'', from which nothing has come down to us. The greatest loss is Ovid's only tragedy, ''Medea'', from which only a few lines are preserved. [[Quintilian]] admired the work a great deal and considered it a prime example of Ovid's poetic talent.<ref>Quint. ''Inst.'' 10.1.98. Cfr. Tacitus, ''Dial. Orat.'' 12.</ref> [[Lactantius]] quotes from a lost translation by Ovid of [[Aratus]]' ''Phaenomena'', although the poem's ascription to Ovid is insecure because it is never mentioned in Ovid's other works.<ref>Lact. ''Div. Inst.'' 2.5.24. Another quotation by [[Marcus Valerius Probus|Probus]] ''ad Verg. Georg.'' 1, 138</ref>
A line from a work entitled ''Epigrammata'' is cited by [[Priscian]].<ref>''Inst. gramm.'' 5, 13, ''Gramm. Lat.'' 2, 149, 13 Keil.</ref>
Even though it is unlikely, if the last six books of the ''Fasti'' ever existed, they constitute a great loss. Ovid also mentions some occasional poetry (''[[Epithalamium]]'',<ref>''Ex P.'' 1.2.131</ref> dirge,<ref>''Ex P.'' 1.7.30</ref> even a rendering in [[Getae#Culture|Getic]]<ref>''Ex P.'' 4.13.19></ref>) which does not survive. Also lost is the final portion of the ''Medicamina''.