Editing Ottoman Empire (section)

==== Revolts, reversals, and revivals (1566–1683) ====
{{Main|Transformation of the Ottoman Empire}}
{{Further|Ottoman decline thesis}}
[[File:IstanbulNavalMuseum38.JPG|thumb|Late 16th or early 17th century [[Ottoman Navy|Ottoman]] [[galley]] known as ''[[Tarihi Kadırga]]'' at the [[Istanbul Naval Museum]], built in the period between the reigns of Sultan [[Murad III]] (1574–1595) and Sultan [[Mehmed IV]] (1648–1687)<ref name="kadirga1">{{Cite web |date=24 November 2021 |title=The Historical Galley |url=https://denizmuzesi.dzkk.tsk.tr/index.php/en/content/2 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211008120739/https://denizmuzesi.dzkk.tsk.tr/index.php/en/content/2 |archive-date=8 October 2021 |website=denizmuzesi.dzkk.tsk.tr}}</ref><ref name="kadirga2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304623376|title=Liphschitz, N., 2014. The Kadirga galley in Istanbul – The Turkish Sultan's Caique: A dendrohistorical research. In: Environment and Ecology in the Mediterranean Rgion II (eds. R. Efe and M. Ozturk). Cambridge Scholars Pub. Pp.39–48. Cambridge.}}</ref>]]

In the second half of the sixteenth century, the Ottoman Empire came under increasing strain from inflation and the rapidly rising costs of warfare that were impacting both Europe and the Middle East.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ágoston |first=Gábor |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |date=2009 |editor-last=Ágoston |editor-first=Gábor |page=xxxii |chapter=Introduction |editor-last2=Bruce Masters}}; {{Cite book |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57456-3 |editor-last=İnalcık |editor-first=Halil |volume=2 |page=553 |chapter=Crisis and Change, 1590–1699 |quote=In the past fifty years, scholars have frequently tended to view this decreasing participation of the sultan in political life as evidence for "Ottoman decadence", which supposedly began at some time during the second half of the sixteenth century. But recently, more note has been taken of the fact that the Ottoman Empire was still a formidable military and political power throughout the seventeenth century, and that noticeable though limited economic recovery followed the crisis of the years around 1600; after the crisis of the 1683–1699 war, there followed a longer and more decisive economic upswing. Major evidence of decline was not visible before the second half of the eighteenth century. |editor2=Donald Quataert}}</ref> These pressures led to a series of crises around the year 1600, placing great strain upon the Ottoman system of government.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57456-3 |editor-last=İnalcık |editor-first=Halil |volume=2 |chapter=Crisis and Change, 1590–1699 |editor-last2=Donald Quataert}}</ref>{{rp|413–414}} The empire underwent a series of transformations of its political and military institutions in response to these challenges, enabling it to successfully adapt to the new conditions of the seventeenth century and remain powerful, both militarily and economically.<ref name=decline/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Şahin |first=Kaya |title=Empire and Power in the Reign of Süleyman: Narrating the Sixteenth-Century Ottoman World |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2013 |isbn=978-1-107-03442-6}}</ref>{{rp|10}} Historians of the mid-twentieth century once characterised this period as one of stagnation and decline, but this view is now rejected by the majority of academics.<ref name=decline/>

The discovery of new maritime trade routes by Western European states allowed them to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly. The [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portuguese]] discovery of the [[Cape of Good Hope]] in 1488 initiated [[Ottoman naval expeditions in the Indian Ocean|a series of Ottoman-Portuguese naval wars]] in the [[Indian Ocean]] throughout the 16th century. Despite the growing European presence in the Indian Ocean, Ottoman trade with the east continued to flourish. Cairo, in particular, benefitted from the rise of Yemeni coffee as a popular consumer commodity. As coffeehouses appeared in cities and towns across the empire, Cairo developed into a major center for its trade, contributing to its continued prosperity throughout the seventeenth and much of the eighteenth century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57456-3 |editor-last=İnalcık |editor-first=Halil |volume=2 |chapter=Crisis and Change, 1590–1699 |editor-last2=Quataert |editor-first2=Donald}}</ref>{{rp|507–508}}

Under [[Ivan IV]] (1533–1584), the [[Tsardom of Russia]] expanded into the Volga and Caspian regions at the expense of the [[Tatars|Tatar]] [[khanate]]s. In 1571, the Crimean khan [[Devlet I Giray]], commanded by the Ottomans, [[Russo-Crimean Wars|invaded Russia]] and [[Fire of Moscow (1571)|burned Moscow]].<ref name="Davies2007">{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Brian L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XH4hghHo1qoC&pg=PA16 |title=Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe: 1500–1700 |publisher=Routledge |date=2007 |isbn=978-0-415-23986-8 |page=16 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151037/https://books.google.com/books?id=XH4hghHo1qoC&pg=PA16 |url-status=live }}</ref> The next year, the invasion was repeated but repelled at the [[Battle of Molodi]]. The Ottoman Empire and its vassal, the Crimean Khanate, continued to invade Eastern Europe in a series of [[Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe|slave raids]],<ref name="Subtelny2000">{{Cite book |last=Orest Subtelny |url=https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0 |title=Ukraine |publisher=University of Toronto Press |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-8020-8390-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0/page/106 106] |access-date=11 February 2013 |url-access=registration}}</ref> and remained a significant power in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Matsuki |first=Eizo |title=The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves |url=http://www.econ.hit-u.ac.jp/~areastd/mediterranean/mw/pdf/18/10.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115170654/http://www.econ.hit-u.ac.jp/~areastd/mediterranean/mw/pdf/18/10.pdf |archive-date=15 January 2013 |access-date=11 February 2013 |publisher=Mediterranean Studies Group at Hitotsubashi University }}</ref> The Crimean cavalry became indispensable for the Ottomans' campaigns against Russia, [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland]], [[Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)|Hungary]], and [[Safavid Iran|Persia]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Brian Glyn Williams |title=The Sultan's Raiders: The Military Role of the Crimean Tatars in the Ottoman Empire |url=http://www.jamestown.org/uploads/media/Crimean_Tatar_-_complete_report_01.pdf |website=[[The Jamestown Foundation]] |date=2013 |page=27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021092115/http://www.jamestown.org/uploads/media/Crimean_Tatar_-_complete_report_01.pdf |archive-date=21 October 2013 }}</ref> 

[[File:Giorgio-vasari-battle-of-lepanto.jpg|thumb|Order of battle of the two fleets in the [[Battle of Lepanto]], with an allegory of the three powers of the [[Holy League (1571)|Holy League]] in the foreground, fresco by [[Giorgio Vasari]]]]

The Ottomans decided to conquer [[Venetian Cyprus]] and on 22 July 1570, Nicosia was besieged; 50,000 Christians died, and 180,000 were enslaved.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History. Volume 10 Ottoman and Safavid Empires (1600–1700) |publisher=BRILL}}</ref>{{rp|67}} On 15 September 1570, the Ottoman cavalry appeared before the last Venetian stronghold in Cyprus, Famagusta. The Venetian defenders held out for 11 months against a force that at its peak numbered 200,000 men with 145 cannons; 163,000 cannonballs struck the walls of Famagusta before it fell to the Ottomans in August 1571. The [[Siege of Famagusta]] claimed 50,000 Ottoman casualties.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tucker |first=Spencer C. |title=Middle East Conflicts from Ancient Egypt to the 21st Century: An Encyclopedia and Document Collection [4 volumes] |date=2019}}</ref>{{rp|328}} Meanwhile, the [[Holy League (1571)|Holy League]] consisting of mostly Spanish and Venetian fleets won a victory over the Ottoman fleet at the [[Battle of Lepanto]] (1571), off southwestern Greece; Catholic forces killed over 30,000 Turks and destroyed 200 of their ships.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hanlon |first=Gregory |title=The Twilight Of A Military Tradition: Italian Aristocrats And European Conflicts, 1560–1800 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref>{{rp|24}} It was a startling, if mostly symbolic,{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|p=272}} blow to the image of Ottoman invincibility, an image which the victory of the [[Knights Hospitaller|Knights of Malta]] over the Ottoman invaders in the 1565 [[Great Siege of Malta|siege of Malta]] had recently set about eroding.<ref>{{cite book |last=Braudel |first=Fernand Braudel |title=The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II |volume=II |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |date=1995}}</ref> The battle was far more damaging to the Ottoman navy in sapping experienced manpower than the loss of ships, which were rapidly replaced.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kunt |first1=Metin |title=Süleyman the Magnificent and His Age: the Ottoman Empire in the Early Modern World |last2=Woodhead |first2=Christine |publisher=Longman |date=1995 |isbn=978-0-582-03827-1}}</ref>{{rp|53}} The Ottoman navy recovered quickly, persuading Venice to sign a peace treaty in 1573, allowing the Ottomans to expand and consolidate their position in North Africa.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|p=67}}

By contrast, the [[Ottoman–Habsburg wars|Habsburg frontier]] had settled somewhat, a stalemate caused by a stiffening of the [[Military Frontier|Habsburg defenses]].{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|p=71}} The [[Long Turkish War]] against Habsburg Austria (1593–1606) created the need for greater numbers of Ottoman infantry equipped with firearms, resulting in a relaxation of recruitment policy. This contributed to problems of indiscipline and outright rebelliousness within the corps, which were never fully solved.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|pp=90–92}}{{Obsolete source|date=September 2016}} Irregular sharpshooters ([[Sekban]]) were also recruited, and on demobilisation turned to [[brigandage]] in the [[Celali rebellions]] (1590–1610), which engendered widespread anarchy in [[Anatolia]] in the late 16th and early 17th centuries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Halil İnalcık |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1j-AtkBmn78C&pg=PA24 |title=An Economic And Social History of the Ottoman Empire, Vol. 1 1300–1600 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1997 |isbn=978-0-521-57456-3 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151035/https://books.google.com/books?id=1j-AtkBmn78C&pg=PA24 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|24}} With the Empire's population reaching 30&nbsp;million people by 1600, the shortage of land placed further pressure on the government.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|p=281}}{{Obsolete source|date=September 2016}} In spite of these problems, the Ottoman state remained strong, and its army did not collapse or suffer crushing defeats. The only exceptions were campaigns against the [[Safavid dynasty]] of Persia, where many of the Ottoman eastern provinces were lost, some permanently. This [[Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1618)|1603–1618 war]] eventually resulted in the [[Treaty of Nasuh Pasha]], which ceded the entire Caucasus, except westernmost Georgia, back into the possession of [[Safavid Iran]].<ref>Gábor Ágoston, Bruce Alan Masters [https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA23 ''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141240/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA23 |date=1 November 2022 }} pp. 23 Infobase Publishing, 1 January 2009 {{ISBN|1-4381-1025-1}}</ref> The treaty ending the [[Cretan War (1645–1669)|Cretan War]] cost Venice much of [[Venetian Dalmatia|Dalmatia]], its Aegean island possessions, and [[Kingdom of Candia|Crete]]. (Losses from the war totalled 30,985 Venetian soldiers and 118,754 Turkish soldiers.)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Paoletti |first=Ciro |title=A Military History of Italy |date=2008}}</ref>{{rp|33}}

During his brief majority reign, [[Murad IV]] (1623–1640) reasserted central authority and [[Ottoman–Safavid War (1623–1639)|recaptured Iraq]] (1639) from the Safavids.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|p=73}} The resulting [[Treaty of Zuhab]] of that same year decisively divided the Caucasus and adjacent regions between the two neighbouring empires as it had already been defined in the 1555 Peace of Amasya.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Herzig |first1=Edmund |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B8WRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |title=Armenians: Past and Present in the Making of National Identity |last2=Kurkchiyan |first2=Marina |date=10 November 2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-79837-6 |access-date=30 December 2014 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151037/https://books.google.com/books?id=B8WRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Rubenstein |first=Richard L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yED-aVDCbycC&pg=PA228 |title=Genocide and the Modern Age: Etiology and Case Studies of Mass Death |date=2000 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |isbn=978-0-8156-2828-6 |access-date=30 December 2014 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151037/https://books.google.com/books?id=yED-aVDCbycC&pg=PA228 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Sultanate of Women]] (1533–1656) was a period in which the mothers of young sultans exercised power on behalf of their sons. The most prominent women of this period were [[Kösem Sultan]] and her daughter-in-law [[Turhan Hatice]], whose political rivalry culminated in Kösem's murder in 1651.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|pp=74–75}} During the [[Köprülü era]] (1656–1703), effective control of the Empire was exercised by a sequence of [[grand vizier]]s from the Köprülü family. The Köprülü Vizierate saw renewed military success with authority restored in Transylvania, the conquest of [[Crete]] completed in 1669, and [[Polish–Ottoman War (1672–1676)|expansion]] into [[History of Ukraine#Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Polish southern Ukraine]], with the strongholds of [[Khotyn]], and [[Kamianets-Podilskyi]] and the territory of [[Podolia]] ceding to Ottoman control in 1676.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|pp=80–81}}

[[File:Vienna Battle 1683.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Vienna|Second Siege of Vienna]] in 1683, by [[Frans Geffels]] (1624–1694)]]

This period of renewed assertiveness came to a calamitous end in 1683 when Grand Vizier [[Kara Mustafa Pasha]] led a huge army to attempt a second Ottoman siege of [[History of Vienna|Vienna]] in the [[Great Turkish War]] of 1683–1699. The final assault being fatally delayed, the Ottoman forces were swept away by allied Habsburg, German, and Polish forces spearheaded by the Polish king [[John III Sobieski]] at the [[Battle of Vienna]]. The alliance of the [[Holy League (1684)|Holy League]] pressed home the advantage of the defeat at Vienna, culminating in the [[Treaty of Karlowitz]] (26 January 1699), which ended the Great Turkish War.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|p=357}} The Ottomans surrendered control of significant territories, many permanently.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|p=84}} [[Mustafa II]] (1695–1703) led the counterattack of 1695–1696 against the Habsburgs in Hungary, but was undone at the disastrous defeat at [[Battle of Zenta|Zenta]] (in modern Serbia), 11 September 1697.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|pp=83–84}}