Editing Old English literature (section)

== Poetry ==
[[File:CaedmonManuscriptPage46Illust.jpg|thumb|In this illustration from page 46 of the [[Cædmon manuscript|Cædmon]] (or Junius) manuscript, an angel is shown guarding the gates of paradise.]]

=== Form and style ===
The most distinguishing feature of Old English poetry is its [[alliterative verse]] style.

The Anglo-Latin verse tradition in early medieval England was accompanied by discourses on Latin [[metre (poetry)|prosody]], which were 'rules' or guidance for writers. The rules of Old English verse are understood only through modern analysis of the extant texts.

The first widely accepted theory was constructed by [[Eduard Sievers]] (1893), who distinguished five distinct [[alliteration|alliterative]] patterns.{{sfn|Sievers|1893}} His system of [[alliterative verse]] is based on [[accentual verse|accent]], alliteration, the quantity of vowels, and patterns of [[Syllable|syllabic]] accentuation. It consists of five permutations on a base verse scheme; any one of the five types can be used in any verse. The system was inherited from and exists in one form or another in all of the older [[Germanic language]]s.

Alternative theories have been proposed, such as the theory of [[John C. Pope]] (1942), which uses musical notation to track the verse patterns.{{sfn|Pope|1942}} [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] describes and illustrates many of the features of Old English poetry in his 1940 essay "[[On Translating Beowulf|On Translating ''Beowulf'']]{{-"}}.{{sfn|Tolkien|1983}}

==== Alliteration and assonance ====
{{Main|alliterative verse}}

Old English poetry alliterates, meaning that a sound is repeated throughout a line, generally taken from the first syllable of the first stressed word in a line. Alliteration is based on sound rather than letter. For instance, in the first line of [[The Wanderer (Old English poem)|The Wanderer]], "Oft him anhaga are gebideð", "Often the loner finds grace for himself", the 'o' of 'oft', and 'a' in 'anhaga' and 'are' all alliterate. Prefixes, such as 'ge-' are always unstressed and therefore are not part of alliterative patterns, while consonant clusters, for example 'st' or 'sp' may only alliterate with themselves, not any word beginning with 's'.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Old English Online - Syntax |url=https://oldenglish.info/syntax4.html |access-date=2024-10-14 |website=oldenglish.info}}</ref>

==== Caesura ====
Old English poetry, like other Old Germanic alliterative verse, is also commonly marked by the [[caesura]] or pause. In addition to setting pace for the line, the caesura also grouped each line into two [[hemistich]]s.

==== Metaphor ====
[[Kenning]]s are a key feature of Old English poetry. A kenning is an often formulaic metaphorical phrase that describes one thing in terms of another: for instance, in ''[[Beowulf]]'', the sea is called the ''whale road''. Another example of a kenning in ''[[The Wanderer (Old English poem)|The Wanderer]]'' is a reference to battle as a "storm of spears".<ref>''The Wanderer'' line 99</ref>

Old English poetry is marked by the comparative rarity of [[simile]]s.<ref name="HumeK1975">{{cite journal|author=Kathryn Hume|title=The Theme and Structure of Beowulf|journal=Studies in Philology|volume=72|issue=1|date=January 1975|pages=1–27}}</ref> ''[[Beowulf]]'' contains at best five similes, and these are of the short variety.<ref name="HumeK1975"/>

==== Variation ====
The Old English poet was particularly fond of describing the same person or object with varied phrases (often appositives) that indicated different qualities of that person or object. For instance, the ''Beowulf'' poet refers in three and a half lines to a Danish king as "lord of the Danes" (referring to the people in general), "king of the Scyldings" (the name of the specific Danish tribe), "giver of rings" (one of the king's functions is to distribute treasure), and "famous chief". Such variation, which the modern reader (who likes verbal precision) is not used to, is frequently a difficulty in producing a readable translation.{{sfn|Howe|2012}}

==== Litotes ====
Litotes is a form of dramatic understatement employed by the author for ironic effect.{{sfn|Sievers|1893}}

=== Oral tradition ===
{{Main|Oral-formulaic theory in Anglo-Saxon poetry}}

Even though all extant Old English poetry is written and literate, many scholars propose that Old English poetry was an oral craft that was performed by a ''[[scop]]'' and accompanied by a [[harp]].{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

The hypotheses of [[Milman Parry]] and [[Albert Lord]] on the [[Homeric Question]] came to be applied (by Parry and Lord, but also by [[Francis Magoun]]) to verse written in [[Old English]]. That is, the theory proposes that certain features of at least some of the poetry may be explained by positing [[oral-formulaic composition]]. While Old English [[epic poetry]] may bear some resemblance to [[Ancient Greek]] [[Epic poetry|epics]] such as the ''[[Iliad]]'' and ''[[Odyssey]]'', the question of if and how Anglo-Saxon poetry was passed down through an [[oral tradition]] remains a subject of debate, and the question for any particular poem unlikely to be answered with perfect certainty.{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}}

Parry and Lord had already demonstrated the density of metrical formulas in [[Ancient Greek]], and observed the same feature in the Old English alliterative line:

<blockquote><poem>''Hroþgar maþelode helm Scildinga'' ("Hrothgar spoke, protector of the Scildings")
''Beoƿulf maþelode bearn Ecgþeoƿes'' ("Beowulf spoke, son of Ecgtheow")</poem></blockquote>

In addition to verbal formulas, many themes have been shown to appear among the various works of Anglo-Saxon literature. The theory suggests a reason for this: the poetry was composed of formulae and themes from a stock common to the poetic profession, as well as literary passages composed by individual artists in a more modern sense. [[Larry Benson]] introduced the concept of "written-formulaic" to describe the status of some Anglo-Saxon poetry which, while demonstrably written, contains evidence of oral influences, including heavy reliance on formulas and themes.{{sfn|Foley|1985|p=42|ps=; Foley cites {{harvtxt|Benson|1966}}.}} Frequent oral-formulaic themes in Old English poetry include "Beasts of Battle"{{sfn|Magoun|1953}} and the "Cliff of Death".{{sfn|Fry|1987}} The former, for example, is characterised by the mention of ravens, eagles, and wolves preceding particularly violent depictions of battle. Among the most thoroughly documented themes is "The Hero on the Beach". [[D. K. Crowne]] first proposed this theme, defined by four characteristics:
* A Hero on the Beach.
* Accompanying "Retainers".
* A Flashing Light.
* The Completion or Initiation of a Journey.

One example Crowne cites in his article is that which concludes Beowulf's fight with the monsters during his swimming match with Breca:

{| class="wikitable"

|+ Beowulf (562-570a)
! Modern English !! West Saxon
|- align="center"
| Those sinful creatures had no<br />fill of rejoicing that they consumed me,<br />assembled at feast at the sea bottom;<br />rather, in the morning, wounded by blades<br />they lay up on the shore, put to sleep by swords,<br />so that never after did they hinder sailors<br />in their course on the sea.<br />The light came from the east,<br />the bright beacon of God.
|
{|
| align="right"| Næs hie ðære fylle<br />manfordædlan,<br />symbel ymbsæton<br />ac on mergenne<br />be yðlafe<br />sƿeordum asƿefede,<br />ymb brontne<br />lade ne letton.<br />beorht beacen godes;
| align="left"| /  gefean hæfdon,<br />/ þæt hie me þegon,<br />/ sægrunde neah;<br />/ mecum ƿunde<br />/ uppe lægon,<br />/ þæt syðþan na<br />/ ford brimliðende<br />/ Leoht eastan com,<br />/ ...
|}

|}

Crowne drew on examples of the theme's appearance in twelve Old English texts, including one occurrence in [[Beowulf]].{{sfn|Crowne|1960}} It was also observed in other works of Germanic origin, Middle English poetry, and even an Icelandic prose saga. John Richardson held that the schema was so general as to apply to virtually any character at some point in the narrative, and thought it an instance of the "threshold" feature of [[Joseph Campbell]]'s [[monomyth|Hero's Journey monomyth]]. J.A. Dane, in an article{{sfn|Dane|1982}} (characterised by Foley as "polemics without rigour"{{sfn|Foley|1985|p=200}}) claimed that the appearance of the theme in [[Ancient Greek]] poetry, a tradition without known connection to the Germanic, invalidated the notion of "an autonomous theme in the baggage of an oral poet." Foley's response was that Dane misunderstood the nature of oral tradition, and that in fact the appearance of the theme in other cultures showed that it was a traditional form.{{sfn|Foley|1985}}

=== Poets ===
Most Old English poems are recorded without authors, and very few names are known with any certainty; the primary three are [[Cædmon]], [[Aldhelm]], and [[Cynewulf]].{{sfn|Cameron|1982|p=277}}

==== Bede ====
[[Bede]] is often thought to be the poet of a five-line poem entitled ''Bede's Death Song'', on account of its appearance in a letter on his death by [[Cuthbert]]. This poem exists in a Northumbrian and later version.{{sfn|Smith|1978}}

==== Cædmon ====
Cædmon is considered the first Old English poet whose work still survives. He is a legendary figure, as described in [[Bede]]'s Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to Bede, Cædmon was first an illiterate herdsman. Following a vision of a messenger from God, Cædmon received the gift of poetry, and then lived as a monk under [[Hilda of Whitby|Abbess Hild]] at the abbey of [[Whitby]] in [[Northumbria]] in the 7th century.{{sfn|Cameron|1982|p=277}}{{sfn|Vernon|1861|p=145}} Bede's ''History'' claims to reproduce Cædmon's first poem, comprising nine lines. Referred to as ''[[Cædmon's Hymn]]'', the poem is extant in Northumbrian, West-Saxon and Latin versions that appear in 19 surviving manuscripts:{{sfn|O'Donnell|2005|p=78}}

{| class="wikitable"

|+ Cædmon's Hymn in different dialects
! Modern English{{sfn|Hamer|2015|p=126}} !! West Saxon<ref name="CaedmonSweet">{{citation |last=Sweet |first=Henry |title=An Anglo-Saxon Reader |publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1943|edition=13th|location=Oxford|pages=43|url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.20777/2015.20777.Sweets-Anglo-saxon-Reader-In-Prose-And-Verseed13#page/n51/mode/2up}} Taken from the Corpus MS. at Oxford (279), commonly referred to as the "O" manuscript of Bede's Ecclesiastical History.</ref>!! Northumbrian{{sfn|Hamer|2015|p=125|ps=, taken from {{harvp|Smith|1978}}, in turn taken from the manuscript known as the Moore Bede (Cambridge Library MS. kk.5.16)}}
|- align="center"
| Now we must praise the Guardian of heaven,<br />The power and conception of the Lord,<br />And all His works, as He, eternal Lord,<br />Father of glory, started every wonder.<br />First He created heaven as a roof,<br />The holy Maker, for the sons of men.<br />Then the eternal Keeper of mankind<br />Furnished the earth below, the land, for men,<br />Almighty God and everlasting Lord.
|
{|
| align="right" | Nū wē sculan herian<br />Metodes mihte<br />weorc Wuldorfæder;<br />ēce Dryhten,<br />Hē ǣrest gesceōp<br />heofon tō hrōfe,<br />ða middangeard,<br />ēce Dryhten,<br />fīrum foldan,
| align="left" | / heofonrīces Weard,<br />/ and his mōdgeþonc,<br />/ swā hē wundra gehwæs,<br />/ ord onstealde.<br />/ eorðan bearnum<br />/ hālig Scyppend;<br />/ monncynnes Weard,<br />/ æfter tēode<br />/ Frēa Ælmihtig.
|}
|
{|
| align="right" | Nū scylun hergan<br />Metudæs mæcti<br />uerc Uuldurfadur,<br />ēci Dryctin,<br />Hē ǣrist scōp<br />heben til hrōfe<br />Thā middungeard<br />ēci Dryctin,<br />fīrum foldu,
| align="left" | / hefænrīcaes Uard,<br />/ end His mōdgidanc<br />/ suē Hē uundra gihuæs,<br />/ ōr āstelidæ.<br />/ ælda barnum<br />/ hāleg Scepen.<br />/ moncynnæs Uard,<br />/ æfter tīadæ<br />/ Frēa allmectig.
|}

|}

==== Cynewulf ====
[[Cynewulf]] has proven to be a difficult figure to identify, but recent research suggests he was an Anglian poet from the early part of the 9th century. Four poems are attributed to him, signed with a runic acrostic at the end of each poem; these are ''The Fates of the Apostles'' and ''Elene'' (both found in the Vercelli Book), and ''Christ II'' and ''Juliana'' (both found in the Exeter Book).{{sfn|Cameron|1982|p=278}}

Although [[William of Malmesbury]] claims that [[Aldhelm]], bishop of [[Sherborne]] (d. 709), performed [[secular]] songs while accompanied by a harp, none of these Old English poems survives.{{sfn|Cameron|1982|p=278}} Paul G. Remely has recently proposed that the Old English ''[[Exodus (poem)|Exodus]]'' may have been the work of Aldhelm, or someone closely associated with him.{{sfn|Remley|2005}}

==== Alfred ====
[[Alfred the Great|Alfred]] is said to be the author of some of the metrical prefaces to the Old English translations of Gregory's ''Pastoral Care'' and Boethius's ''Consolation of Philosophy''. Alfred is also thought to be the author of 50 metrical psalms, but whether the poems were written by him, under his direction or patronage, or as a general part in his reform efforts is unknown.{{sfn|Treschow|Gill|Swartz|2009}}

=== Poetic genres and themes ===

==== Heroic poetry ====
[[File:BLBeowulf.jpg|thumb|Remounted page from ''[[Beowulf]]'', [[British Library]] Cotton Vitellius A.XV]]
[[File:Beowulf Cotton MS Vitellius A XV f. 132r.jpg|thumb|First page of ''Beowulf'', contained in the damaged Nowell Codex]]

The Old English poetry which has received the most attention deals with what has been termed the Germanic heroic past. Scholars suggest that Old English heroic poetry was handed down orally from generation to generation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=British Library |url=https://www.bl.uk/medieval-literature/articles/old-english-heroic-poetry |access-date=2022-10-13 |website=www.bl.uk |archive-date=2022-10-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013115813/https://www.bl.uk/medieval-literature/articles/old-english-heroic-poetry |url-status=live }}</ref> As Christianity began to appear, re-tellers often recast the tales of Christianity into the older heroic stories.{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}}

The longest at 3,182 lines, and the most important, is ''[[Beowulf]]'', which appears in the damaged [[Nowell Codex]]. Beowulf relates the exploits of the hero Beowulf, King of the [[Geats|Weder-Geats]] or [[Angles (tribe)|Angles]], around the middle of the 5th century. The author is unknown, and no mention of Britain occurs. Scholars are divided over the date of the present text, with hypotheses ranging from the 8th to the 11th centuries.{{sfn|Downey|2015}}{{sfn|Neidorf|2014}} It has achieved much acclaim as well as sustained academic and artistic interest.{{sfn|Bjork|Niles|1998|p=ix}}

Other heroic poems besides ''Beowulf'' exist. Two have survived in fragments: ''[[Finnsburg Fragment|The Fight at Finnsburh]]'', controversially interpreted by many to be a retelling of one of the battle scenes in ''Beowulf'', and ''[[Waldere]]'', a version of the events of the life of [[Walter of Aquitaine]]. Two other poems mention heroic figures: ''[[Widsith]]'' is believed to be very old in parts, dating back to events in the 4th century concerning [[Ermanaric|Eormanric]] and the [[Goths]], and contains a catalogue of names and places associated with valiant deeds. ''[[Deor]]'' is a lyric, in the style of ''[[Consolation of Philosophy]]'', applying examples of famous heroes, including [[Wayland the Smith|Weland]] and Eormanric, to the narrator's own case.{{sfn|Cameron|1982|p=278}}

The ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' contains various heroic poems inserted throughout. The earliest from 937 is called ''[[Battle of Brunanburh (poem)|The Battle of Brunanburh]]'', which celebrates the victory of King [[Athelstan]] over the Scots and Norse. There are five shorter poems: capture of the [[Five Boroughs of the Danelaw|Five Boroughs]] (942); coronation of [[Edgar of England|King Edgar]] (973); death of King Edgar (975); death of Alfred the son of King Æthelred (1036); and death of King [[Edward the Confessor]] (1065).{{sfn|Cameron|1982|p=278}}

The 325 line poem ''[[The Battle of Maldon]]'' celebrates [[Earl]] [[Byrhtnoth]] and his men who fell in battle against the [[Viking]]s in 991. It is considered one of the finest, but both the beginning and end are missing and the only manuscript was destroyed in a fire in 1731.{{sfn|Cameron|1982|p=278-279}} A well-known speech is near the end of the poem:

{| class="wikitable"

|+ The Battle of Maldon (312-319)
! Modern English !! West Saxon{{sfn|Hamer|2015|p=66|ps=, Lists a number of sources: E.D. Laborde (1936), [[E.V. Gordon]] (1937), D.G. Scragg (1981), Bernard J. Muir (1989), J.C. Pope & R.D. Fulk (2001), [[J.R.R. Tolkien]] (1953), [[Norman Blake (academic)|N.F. Blake]] (1965), O.D. Macrae-Gibson (1970), Donald Scragg (1991), Jane Cooper (1993).}}
|- align="center"
| Thought shall be the harder, the heart the keener,<br />courage the greater, as our strength lessens.<br />Here lies our leader in the dust,<br />all cut down; always may he mourn<br />who now thinks to turn away from this warplay.<br />I am old, I will not go away,<br />but I plan to lie down by the side of my lord,<br />by the man so dearly loved.
|
{|
| align="right"| Hige sceal þē heardra,<br />mōd sceal þē māre,<br />Hēr līð ūre ealdor<br />gōd on grēote;<br />se ðe nū fram þis ƿīgplegan<br />Ic eom frōd fēores;<br />ac ic mē be healfe<br />be sƿā lēofan men
| align="left"| / heorte þē cēnre,<br />/ þē ūre mægen lȳtlað.<br />/ eall forhēaƿen,<br />/ ā mæg gnornian<br />/ ƿendan þenceð.<br />/ fram ic ne ƿille,<br />/ mīnum hlāforde,<br />/ licgan þence.
|}

|}

==== Elegiac poetry ====
Related to the heroic tales are a number of short poems from the [[Exeter Book]] which have come to be described as "elegies"{{sfn|Drabble|1985}} or "wisdom poetry".{{sfn|Cameron|1982|p=280-281}}{{sfn|Woodring|1995|p=1}} They are lyrical and [[Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius|Boethian]] in their description of the up and down fortunes of life. Gloomy in mood is ''[[The Ruin]]'', which tells of the decay of a once glorious city of [[Roman Britain]] (cities in Britain fell into decline after the Romans departed in the early 5th century, as the early Celtic Britons continued to live their rural life), and ''[[The Wanderer (Old English poem)|The Wanderer]]'', in which an older man talks about an attack that happened in his youth, when his close friends and kin were all killed; memories of the slaughter have remained with him all his life. He questions the wisdom of the impetuous decision to engage a possibly superior fighting force: the wise man engages in warfare to ''preserve'' civil society, and must not rush into battle but should seek out allies when the odds may be against him. This poet finds little glory in bravery for bravery's sake. ''[[The Seafarer (poem)|The Seafarer]]'' is the story of a sombre exile from home on the sea, from which the only hope of redemption is the joy of heaven. Other wisdom poems include ''[[Wulf and Eadwacer]]'', ''[[The Wife's Lament]]'', and ''[[The Husband's Message]]''. Alfred the Great wrote a wisdom poem over the course of his reign based loosely on the [[neoplatonism|neoplatonic]] philosophy of [[Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius|Boethius]] called the ''[[Lays of Boethius]]''.{{sfn|Cameron|1982|p=281}}

==== Translations of classical and Latin poetry ====
Several Old English poems are adaptations of [[Late Antiquity|late classical]] philosophical texts. The longest is a 10th-century translation of Boethius' ''[[Consolation of Philosophy]]'' contained in the [[Cotton manuscript]] Otho A.vi.{{sfn|Sedgefield|1899}} Another is ''[[Phoenix (Old English poem)|The Phoenix]]'' in the Exeter Book, an [[Allegory in the Middle Ages|allegorisation]] of the ''[[De ave phoenice]]'' by [[Lactantius]].{{sfn|Cameron|1982|p=280}}

Other short poems derive from the Latin [[bestiary]] tradition. These include ''The Panther'', ''[[The Whale (poem)|The Whale]]'' and ''[[The Partridge (poem)|The Partridge]]''.{{sfn|Cameron|1982|p=280}}

==== Riddles ====
{{Main|Anglo-Saxon riddles}}
The most famous Old English [[riddles]] are found in the [[Exeter Book]]. They are part of a wider Anglo-Saxon literary tradition of riddling, which includes riddles written in Latin. Riddles are both comical and obscene.{{sfn|Black|2009}}

The riddles of the Exeter Book are unnumbered and without titles in the manuscript. For this reason, scholars propose different interpretations of how many riddles there are, with some agreeing 94 riddles, and others proposing closer to 100 riddles in the book.<ref>{{Cite web |title=British Library |url=https://www.bl.uk/medieval-literature/articles/the-exeter-book-riddles-in-context |access-date=2022-10-13 |website=www.bl.uk |archive-date=2022-10-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013120526/https://www.bl.uk/medieval-literature/articles/the-exeter-book-riddles-in-context |url-status=live }}</ref> Most scholars believe that the Exeter Book was compiled by a single scribe;<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blake|first=N F|date=Nov 1, 1962|title=The Scribe of the Exeter Book|url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/0399833a60203fcfa285434df475b4ee/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=1817933|journal=Neophilologus|volume=46|issue=4|pages=316–319|doi=10.1007/BF01560863|s2cid=162976021|via=ProQuest|access-date=January 29, 2022|archive-date=January 29, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129154400/https://www.proquest.com/openview/0399833a60203fcfa285434df475b4ee/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=1817933|url-status=live}}</ref> however, the works were almost certainly originally composed by poets.{{sfn|Black|2009}}

A riddle in Old English, written using [[Runes|runic]] script, features on the [[Franks Casket]]. One possible solution for the riddle is 'whale', evoking the whale-bone from which the casket made.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Osborn |first=Marijane |date=2019 |title=Flodu in the Franks Casket's Whale Poem: A Fluvial Meaning with Regional Implications |journal=Philological Quarterly |volume=98 |issue=4 |pages=329–341}}</ref>

==== Saints' lives in verse ====
The Vercelli Book and Exeter Book contain four long narrative poems of saints' lives, or [[hagiography|hagiographies]]. In Vercelli are ''[[Andreas (poem)|Andreas]]'' and ''[[Elene]]'' and in Exeter are ''[[Guthlac]]'' and ''[[Juliana (poem)|Juliana]]''.

''Andreas'' is 1,722 lines long and is the closest of the surviving Old English poems to ''Beowulf'' in style and tone. It is the story of [[Saint Andrew]] and his journey to rescue [[Saint Matthew]] from the [[Mermedonians]]. ''Elene'' is the story of [[Helena, mother of Constantine I|Saint Helena]] (mother of [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]]) and her discovery of the [[True Cross]]. The cult of the True Cross was popular in Anglo-Saxon England and this poem was instrumental in promoting it.{{sfn|Cameron|1982|p=279}}

''Guthlac'' consists of two poems about the English 7th century [[Saint Guthlac]]. ''Juliana'' describes the life of Saint Juliana, including a discussion with the devil during her imprisonment.{{sfn|Cameron|1982|p=279}}

==== Poetic Biblical paraphrases ====
There are a number of partial [[Old English Bible translations]] and paraphrases surviving. The [[Junius manuscript]] contains three paraphrases of Old Testament texts. These were re-wordings of Biblical passages in Old English, not exact translations, but paraphrasing, sometimes into beautiful poetry in its own right. The first and longest is of ''[[Book of Genesis|Genesis]]'' (originally presented as one work in the Junius manuscript but now thought to consist of two separate poems, [[Genesis A|A]] and [[Genesis B|B]]), the second is of ''[[Exodus (poem)|Exodus]]'' and the third is ''[[Daniel (Old English poem)|Daniel]]''. Contained in Daniel are two lyrics, ''Song of the Three Children'' and ''Song of Azarias'', the latter also appearing in the Exeter Book after ''Guthlac''.{{sfn|Cameron|1982|p=279-280}} The fourth and last poem, ''[[Christ and Satan]]'', which is contained in the second part of the Junius manuscript, does not paraphrase any particular biblical book, but retells a number of episodes from both the Old and New Testament.{{sfn|Wrenn|1967|p=97, 101}}

The Nowell Codex contains a Biblical poetic paraphrase, which appears right after ''Beowulf'', called ''[[Judith (poem)|Judith]]'', a retelling of the story of [[Book of Judith|Judith]]. This is not to be confused with [[Aelfric of Eynsham|Ælfric]]'s homily ''[[Judith (homily)|Judith]]'', which retells the same Biblical story in alliterative prose.{{sfn|Cameron|1982|p=280}}

Old English translations of [[Psalter|Psalms]] 51-150 have been preserved, following a prose version of the first 50 Psalms.{{sfn|Cameron|1982|p=280}} There are verse translations of the [[Gloria in Excelsis]], the [[Lord's Prayer]], and the [[Apostles' Creed]], as well as some [[hymn]]s and [[proverb]]s.{{sfn|Cameron|1982|p=281}}

==== Original Christian poems ====
In addition to Biblical paraphrases are a number of original religious poems, mostly lyrical (non-narrative).{{sfn|Cameron|1982|p=280}}

The Exeter Book contains a series of poems entitled ''Christ'', sectioned into ''[[Christ I]]'', ''[[Christ II]]'' and ''[[Christ III]]''.{{sfn|Cameron|1982|p=280}}

Considered one of the most beautiful of all Old English poems is ''[[Dream of the Rood]]'', contained in the Vercelli Book.{{sfn|Cameron|1982|p=280}} The presence of a portion of the poem (in Northumbrian dialect{{sfn|Sweet|1908|p=154}}) carved in runes on an [[Ruthwell Cross|8th century stone cross]] found in [[Ruthwell]], [[Dumfriesshire]], verifies the age of at least this portion of the poem. The Dream of the Rood is a [[dream vision]] in which the [[personified]] cross tells the story of the crucifixion. Christ appears as a young hero-king, confident of victory, while the cross itself feels all the physical pain of the crucifixion, as well as the pain of being forced to kill the young lord.{{sfn|Baker|2003|p=201}}

{| class="wikitable"

|+ The Dream of the Rood (50-56)
! Modern English{{sfn|Hamer|2015|p=166-169}} !! West Saxon{{sfn|Hamer|2015|p=166–169|ps=, lists a number of sources: B. Dickins & A.S.C. Ross (1934), M. Swanton (1970), J.C. Pope & R.D. Fulk (2001), R. Woolf (1958), [[John Burrow (literary scholar)|J.A. Burrow]] (1959)}}
|- align="center"
| Full many a dire experience<br />on that hill. I saw the God of hosts<br />stretched grimly out. Darkness covered<br />the Ruler's corpse with clouds, A shadow passed<br />across his shining beauty, under the dark sky.<br />All creation wept, bewailed<br />the King's death. Christ was on the cross.
|
{|
| align="right"| Feala ic on þǣm beorge<br />ƿrāðra ƿyrda.<br />þearle þenian;<br />beƿrigen mid ƿolcnum<br />scīrne scīman<br />ƿann under ƿolcnum.<br />cƿīðdon Cyninges fyll.
| align="left"| / gebiden hæbbe<br />/ Geseah ic ƿeruda God<br />/ þȳstro hæfdon<br />/ Ƿealdendes hrǣƿ,<br />/ sceadu forðēode,<br />/ Ƿēop eal gesceaft,<br />/ Crīst ƿæs on rōde.
|}

|}

The dreamer resolves to trust in the cross, and the dream ends with a vision of heaven.

There are a number of religious debate poems. The longest is ''[[Christ and Satan]]'' in the Junius manuscript, which deals with the conflict between Christ and Satan during the forty days in the desert. Another debate poem is ''[[Solomon and Saturn]]'', surviving in a number of textual fragments, [[Saturn (mythology)|Saturn]] is portrayed as a magician debating with the wise king [[Solomon]].{{sfn|Cameron|1982|p=280}}

==== Other poems ====
Other poetic forms exist in Old English including short verses, [[gnome (rhetoric)|gnomes]], and [[mnemonic]] poems for remembering long lists of names.{{sfn|Cameron|1982|p=281}}

There are short verses found in the margins of manuscripts which offer practical advice, such as remedies against the loss of cattle or how to deal with a delayed birth, often grouped as [[Spell (paranormal)|charms]]. The longest is called ''[[Nine Herbs Charm]]'' and is probably of [[Anglo-Saxon paganism|pagan]] origin.  Other similar short verses, or charms, include ''[[For a Swarm of Bees]]'', ''[[Against a Dwarf]]'', ''[[Wið færstice|Against a Stabbing Pain]]'', and ''Against a Wen''.{{sfn|Cameron|1982|p=281}}

There are a group of mnemonic poems designed to help memorise lists and sequences of names and to keep objects in order. These poems are named ''[[Menologium]]'', ''[[The Fates of the Apostles]]'', ''[[Old English rune poem|The Rune Poem]]'', ''[[The Seasons for Fasting]]'', and the ''Instructions for Christians''.{{sfn|Cameron|1982|p=281}}