Editing Oil shale (section)

== Applications and products ==
Oil shale is utilized as a fuel for thermal power-plants, burning it (like coal) to drive [[steam turbine]]s; some of these plants [[cogeneration|employ the resulting heat]] for [[district heating]] of homes and businesses. In addition to its use as a fuel, oil shale may also serve in the production of specialty [[Carbon fiber reinforced polymer|carbon fibers]], [[Adsorption|adsorbent carbons]], [[carbon black]], [[phenols]], resins, glues, tanning agents, mastic, road bitumen, cement, bricks, construction and decorative blocks, soil-additives, fertilizers, [[Mineral wool|rock-wool]] insulation, glass, and pharmaceutical products.<ref name="eu" />  However, oil shale use for production of these items remains small or only in experimental development.<ref name="dyni" /><ref name="wec 98">[[#wec|Dyni (2010)]], p. 98</ref> Some oil shales yield [[sulfur]], [[ammonia]], [[Aluminium oxide|alumina]], [[soda ash]], uranium, and [[nahcolite]] as shale-oil extraction byproducts. Between 1946 and 1952, a marine type of ''[[Basidiolichen|Dictyonema]]'' shale served for uranium production in [[Sillamäe]], Estonia, and between 1950 and 1989 Sweden used [[alum]] shale for the same purposes.<ref name=dyni/>  Oil shale gas has served as a substitute for [[natural gas]], but {{as of | 2009 | alt = as of 2009}}, producing oil shale gas as a natural-gas substitute remained economically infeasible.<ref name=proceedings>
{{Cite journal
 | last1 = Schora | first1 = F. C.
 | last2 = Tarman | first2 = P. B.
 | last3 = Feldkirchner | first3 = H. L.
 | last4 = Weil | first4 = S. A.
 | title = Hydrocarbon fuels from oil shale
 | journal = Proceedings
 | publisher = [[American Institute of Chemical Engineers]]
 | volume = 1
 | pages = 325–330
 | year = 1976
 | bibcode = 1976iece.conf..325S
 | id = A77-12662 02-44}}
</ref><ref name=ttu>{{Cite web
 | last = Valgma
 | first = Ingo
 | title = Map of oil shale mining history in Estonia
 | publisher = Mining Institute of [[Tallinn Technical University]]
 | url = http://www.ene.ttu.ee/maeinstituut/mgis/mapofhistory.htm
 | access-date = 21 July 2007
 | archive-date = 17 August 2014
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140817092025/http://www.ene.ttu.ee/maeinstituut/mgis/mapofhistory.htm
 | url-status = dead
 }}</ref>

The shale oil derived from oil shale does not directly substitute for crude oil in all applications. It may contain higher concentrations of [[Alkene|olefins]], oxygen, and nitrogen than conventional crude oil.<ref name="andrews" />  Some shale oils may have higher sulfur or [[arsenic]] content. By comparison with [[West Texas Intermediate]], the benchmark standard for crude oil in the [[futures contract|futures-contract]] market, the Green River shale oil sulfur content ranges from near 0% to 4.9% (in average 0.76%), where West Texas Intermediate's sulfur content has a maximum of 0.42%.<ref name="dyni2">
{{cite journal
 |last1= Dyni | first1= John R.
 |title= Distribution and origin of sulfur in Colorado oil shale
 |date= 1 April 1983
 |publisher= U.S. Geological Survey
 |journal = 16th Oil Shale Symposium Proceedings
 |pages= 144–159
 |id=CONF-830434-
 | osti= 5232531
 }}
</ref> The sulfur content in shale oil from Jordan's oil shales may be as high as 9.5%.<ref>
{{cite journal
 |last1 = Al-Harahsheh | first1 = Adnan
 |last2 = Al-Otoom | first2 = Awni Y.
 |last3 = Shawabkeh | first3 = Reyad A.
 |title= Sulfur distribution in the oil fractions obtained by thermal cracking of Jordanian El-Lajjun oil Shale
 |date=16 October 2003
 |journal = Energy
 |volume = 30
 |pages = 2784–2795
 |publication-date = November 2005
 |doi= 10.1016/j.energy.2005.01.013
 |issue= 15
}}
</ref>  The arsenic content, for example, becomes an issue for Green River formation oil shale. The higher concentrations of these materials means that the oil must undergo considerable upgrading ([[Hydrodesulfurization|hydrotreating]]) before serving as [[oil refinery|oil-refinery]] feedstock.<ref name="lee 6">[[#lee|Lee (1990)]], p. 6</ref>  Above-ground retorting processes tended to yield a lower [[API gravity]] shale oil than the ''in situ'' processes. Shale oil serves best for producing middle-[[Distillation|distillates]] such as [[kerosene]], [[jet fuel]], and [[diesel fuel]]. Worldwide demand for these middle distillates, particularly for diesel fuels, increased rapidly in the 1990s and 2000s.<ref name=andrews/><ref>
{{cite web
 |date=4 May 2006
 |publisher=[[United States House of Representatives]]
 |title= Statement Of Daniel Yergin, Chairman of Cambridge Energy Research Associates, Before The Committee On Energy And Commerce/U.S. House Of Representatives
 |url= http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-109hhrg29386/html/CHRG-109hhrg29386.htm
 |access-date=19 December 2012}}
</ref>  However, appropriate refining processes equivalent to [[Cracking (chemistry)|hydrocracking]] can transform shale oil into a lighter-range hydrocarbon ([[gasoline]]).<ref name=andrews/>