Editing Nebuchadnezzar II (section)

== Reign ==

=== Accession to the throne ===
[[File:Cylinder of Nabopolassar from Babylon, Mesopotamia..JPG|thumb|alt=A Babylonian clay cylinder|A clay cylinder of [[Nabopolassar]], Nebuchadnezzar's father and predecessor, from [[Babylon]]]]
[[File:Nebuchadnezzar King of Justice. Once in power, Nebuchadnezzar was presented as a typical Babylonian monarch; wise, pious, just, and strong. Texts such as this clay tablet, extol his greatness as a man and ruler. From Babylon, Iraq.jpg|thumb|"Nebuchadnezzar, King of Justice". Once in power, Nebuchadnezzar was presented as a typical Babylonian monarch, wise, pious, just, and strong. Texts such as this clay tablet, extol his greatness as a man and ruler. From Babylon, Iraq.]]
Nabopolassar died just a few weeks after Nebuchadnezzar's victory at Carchemish.{{Sfn|Ephʿal|2003|p=179}} At this point in time, Nebuchadnezzar was still away on his campaign against the Egyptians,{{Sfn|Wiseman|1991|p=230}} having chased the retreating Egyptian forces to the region around the city of [[Hama]]th.{{Sfn|Ephʿal|2003|p=180}} The news of Nabopolassar's death reached Nebuchadnezzar's camp on 8 [[Babylonian calendar|Abu]] (late July),{{Sfn|Ephʿal|2003|p=180}}{{Sfn|Parker|Dubberstein|1942|p=9}} and Nebuchadnezzar quickly arranged affairs with the Egyptians and rushed back to Babylon,{{Sfn|Wiseman|1991|p=230}} where he was proclaimed king on 1 Ulūlu (mid-August).{{Sfn|Ephʿal|2003|p=180}} 

The speed in which Nebuchadnezzar returned to Babylon might be due to the threat that one of his brothers (two are known by name: [[Nabu-shum-lishir]]{{Sfn|Olmstead|1925|p=35}}{{Sfn|Wiseman|1983|p=7}} and Nabu-zer-ushabshi){{sfn|Wiseman|1983|p=8}} could claim the throne in his absence. Though Nebuchadnezzar had been recognised as the eldest son and heir by Nabopolassar, Nabu-shum-lishir,{{Sfn|Olmstead|1925|p=35}} Nabopolassar's second-born son,{{Sfn|Wiseman|1983|p=7}} had been recognised as "his equal brother", a dangerously vague title.{{Sfn|Olmstead|1925|p=35}}{{Efn|The word translated as 'equal brother', ''talīmu'', has also been alternatively translated as 'chosen brother', 'close brother' or 'beloved brother'. Regardless of the correct interpretation, the epithet clearly illustrates Nabopolassar's great affection for his second son. Such public affection bestowed upon the brother of the heir to the throne many times led to later conflicts and usurpations.{{Sfn|Ayali-Darshan|2012|pp=26–27}}}} Despite these possible fears, there were no attempts made at usurping his throne at this time.{{Sfn|Olmstead|1925|p=35}}

One of Nebuchadnezzar's first acts as king was to bury his father. Nabopolassar was laid in a huge coffin, adorned with ornamented gold plates and fine dresses with golden beads, which was then placed within a small palace he had constructed in Babylon.{{Sfn|Olmstead|1925|p=35}} Shortly thereafter, before the end of the month in which he had been crowned, Nebuchadnezzar returned to Syria to resume his campaign. The Babylonian Chronicle records that "he marched about victoriously", meaning that he faced little to no resistance, returning to Babylon after several months of campaigning.{{Sfn|Ephʿal|2003|p=180}} The Syrian campaign, though it resulted in a certain amount of plunder, was not a complete success in that it did not ensure Nebuchadnezzar's grasp on the region. He had seemingly failed to inspire fear, given that none of the westernmost states in the Levant swore fealty to him and paid tribute.{{Sfn|Elayi|2018|p=190}}

=== Early military campaigns ===
Though little information survives concerning them, the Babylonian Chronicle preserves brief accounts of Nebuchadnezzar's military activities in his first eleven years as king. In 604 BC, Nebuchadnezzar campaigned in the Levant once again, conquering the city of [[Ascalon]].{{Sfn|Ephʿal|2003|p=180}} According to the Babylonian Chronicle, Ascalon's king was captured and taken to Babylon, and the city was plundered and levelled to the ground. Modern excavations at Ascalon have confirmed that the city was more or less destroyed at this point in time.{{Sfn|Beaulieu|2018|p=228}} The Ascalon campaign was preceded by a campaign in Syria, which was more successful than Nebuchadnezzar's first, resulting in oaths of fealty from the rulers of [[Phoenicia]].{{Sfn|Elayi|2018|p=190}}

[[File:Neo-Babylonian Empire under Nebuchadnezzar II.png|alt=Map of Nebuchadnezzar's empire|thumb|A map of the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] under Nebuchadnezzar]]
In 603 BC, Nebuchadnezzar campaigned in a land whose name is not preserved in the surviving copy of the chronicle. The chronicle records that this campaign was extensive, given that the account mentions the construction of large siege towers and a siege of a city, the name of which does not survive either. [[Anson Rainey]] speculated in 1975 that the city taken was Gaza, whereas Nadav Na'aman thought in 1992 that it was [[Kummuh]] in south-eastern [[Anatolia]]. In the second half of the 5th century BC, some documents mentioned the towns Isqalanu (the name derived from Ascalon) and Hazzatu (the name possibly derived from Gaza) near the city of Nippur, indicating that deportees from both of these cities lived near Nippur, and as such possibly that they had been captured at around the same time.{{Sfn|Ephʿal|2003|p=180}}

In both 602 BC and 601 BC, Nebuchadnezzar campaigned in the Levant, though little information survives beyond that a "vast" amount of booty was brought from the Levant to Babylonia in 602 BC.{{Sfn|Ephʿal|2003|p=180}} On account of the entry for 602 BC also referring to Nabu-shum-lishir, Nebuchadnezzar's younger brother, in a fragmentary and unclear context, it is possible that Nabu-shum-lishir led a revolt against his brother in an attempt to usurp the throne in that year, especially since he is no longer mentioned in any sources after 602 BC.{{Sfn|Da Riva|2013|p=198}} The damage to the text however makes this idea speculative and conjectural.{{Sfn|Ephʿal|2003|p=180}}

[[File:Necho-KnellingStatue BrooklynMuseum c.jpg|alt=Statue probably depicting Pharaoh Necho II|thumb|upright=0.6|A statue probably depicting Pharaoh [[Necho II]] of Egypt, who was [[Battle of Carchemish|defeated at Carchemish]] by Nebuchadnezzar in 605 BC, but fought off Nebuchadnezzar's invasion of Egypt in 601 BC]]
In the 601 BC campaign, Nebuchadnezzar departed from the Levant and then marched into Egypt. Despite the defeat at Carchemish in 605 BC, Egypt still had a great amount of influence in the Levant, even though the region was ostensibly under Babylonian rule. Thus, a campaign against Egypt was logical in order to assert Babylonian dominance, and also carried enormous economic and propagandistic benefits, but it was also risky and ambitious. The path into Egypt was difficult, and the lack of secure control of either side of the [[Sinai Desert]] could spell disaster.{{Sfn|Ephʿal|2003|p=|pp=180–181}} 

Nebuchadnezzar's invasion of Egypt failed – the Babylonian Chronicle states that both the Egyptian and Babylonian armies suffered a huge number of casualties.{{Sfn|Ephʿal|2003|p=|pp=180–181}} Though Egypt was not conquered, the campaign did result in momentarily curbing Egyptian interest in the Levant, given that Necho II gave up his ambitions in the region.{{Sfn|Elayi|2018|p=191}} In 599 BC, Nebuchadnezzar marched his army into the Levant and then attacked and raided the Arabs in the Syrian desert. Though apparently successful, it is unclear what the achievements gained in this campaign were.{{Sfn|Ephʿal|2003|p=|pp=180–181}}

In 598 BC, Nebuchadnezzar campaigned against the Kingdom of Judah, [[Siege of Jerusalem (597 BC)|succeeding in capturing]] the city of [[Jerusalem]].{{Sfn|Ephʿal|2003|p=181}} Judah represented a prime target of Babylonian attention given that it was at the epicenter of competition between Babylon and Egypt. By 601 BC, Judah's king, [[Jehoiakim]], had begun to openly challenge Babylonian authority, counting on the fact that Egypt would lend support to his cause. Nebuchadnezzar's first, 598–597 BC, assault on Jerusalem is recorded in the Bible, but also in the Babylonian Chronicle,{{Sfn|Beaulieu|2018|p=228}} which describes it as follows:{{Sfn|Beaulieu|2018|p=228}}

{{blockquote| quote = The seventh year [of Nebuchadnezzar], in the month of Kislimu, the king of Akkad mustered his troops, marched to the Levant, and set up quarters facing the city of Judah [Jerusalem]. In the month of Addaru [early in 597 BC], the second day, he took the city and captured the king. He installed there a king of his choice. He colle[cted] its massive tribute and went back to Babylon.{{Sfn|Beaulieu|2018|p=228}}}}

Jehoiakim had died during Nebuchadnezzar's siege and been replaced by his son, [[Jeconiah]], who was captured and taken to Babylon, with his uncle [[Zedekiah]] installed in his place as king of Judah. Jeconiah is recorded as being alive in Babylonia thereafter, with records as late as 592 or 591 BC listing him among the recipients of food at Nebuchadnezzar's palace and still referring to him as the 'king of the land of Judah'.{{Sfn|Beaulieu|2018|p=228}}

In 597 BC, the Babylonian army departed for the Levant again, but appears to not have engaged in any military activities as they turned back immediately after reaching the Euphrates. The following year, Nebuchadnezzar marched his army along the [[Tigris]] river to do battle with the Elamites, but no actual battle happened as the Elamites retreated out of fear once Nebuchadnezzar was a day's march away. In 595 BC, Nebuchadnezzar stayed at home in Babylon but soon had to face a rebellion against his rule there, though he defeated the rebels, with the chronicle stating that the king "put his large army to the sword and conquered his foe." Shortly thereafter, Nebuchadnezzar again campaigned in the Levant and secured large amounts of tribute. In the last year recorded in the chronicle, 594 BC, Nebuchadnezzar campaigned in the Levant yet again.{{Sfn|Ephʿal|2003|p=181}}

There were several years without any noteworthy military activity at all. Notably, Nebuchadnezzar spent all of 600 BC in Babylon, when the chronicle excuses the king by stating that he stayed in Babylon to "refit his numerous horses and chariotry". Some of the years when Nebuchadnezzar was victorious can also hardly be considered real challenges. Raiding the Arabs in 599 BC was not a major military accomplishment and the victory over Judah and the retreat of the Elamites were not secured on the battlefield. It thus appears that Nebuchadnezzar achieved little military success after the failure of his invasion of Egypt. Nebuchadnezzar's poor military record had dangerous geopolitical consequences. According to the Bible, in Zedekiah's fourth year as king of Judah (594 BC), the kings of [[Ammon]], [[Edom]], [[Moab]], Sidon and [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] met in Jerusalem to deal with the possibility of throwing off Babylonian control.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bible Gateway passage: Jeremiah 27:1-7 - New International Version |url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Jeremiah%2027%3A1-7&version=NIV |access-date=16 October 2022 |website=Bible Gateway |language=en}}</ref> 

Evidence that Babylonian control was beginning to unravel is also clear from contemporary Babylonian records, such as the aforementioned rebellion in Babylonia itself, as well as records of a man being executed in 594 BC at Borspippa for "breaking his oath to the king". The oath-breaking was serious enough that the judge in the trial was Nebuchadnezzar himself. It is also possible that Babylonian–Median relations were becoming strained, with records of a "Median defector" being housed in Nebuchadnezzar's palace and some inscriptions indicating that the Medes were beginning to be seen as "enemies". By 594 BC, the failure of the Egyptian invasion, and the lacklustre state of Nebuchadnezzar's other campaigns, loomed high. According to the Assyriologist Israel Ephʿal, Babylon at this time was seen by its contemporaries more like a "[[paper tiger]]" (i. e. an ineffectual threat) than a great empire, like Assyria just a few decades prior.{{Sfn|Ephʿal|2003|p=|pp=181–183}}
{{clear}}

=== Destruction of Jerusalem ===
{{Main|Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)}}
[[File:Tissot The Chaldees Destroy the Brazen Sea.jpg|alt=Painting of the Babylonians looting Jerusalem|thumb|19th or 20th century painting by [[James Tissot]] depicting the Babylonian forces destroying [[Jerusalem]]]]
From his appointment as king of Judah, Zedekiah waited for the opportune moment to throw off Babylonian control. After Pharaoh Necho II's death in 595 BC, Egyptian intervention in affairs in the Levant increased once again under his successors, [[Psamtik II]] ({{Reign}}595–589 BC) and [[Apries]] ({{Reign}}589–570 BC), who both worked to encourage anti-Babylonian rebellions.{{Sfn|Beaulieu|2018|p=228}} It is possible that the Babylonian failure to invade Egypt in 601 BC helped inspire revolts against the Babylonian Empire.{{Sfn|Elayi|2018|p=192}} The outcome of these efforts was Zedekiah's open revolt against Nebuchadnezzar's authority.{{Sfn|Beaulieu|2018|p=228}} Unfortunately, no cuneiform sources are preserved from this time and the only known account of the fall of Judah is the biblical account.{{Sfn|Beaulieu|2018|p=228}}{{Sfn|Ephʿal|2003|p=183}}

[[File:The captivity of Judah.jpg|alt=Painting of the Babylonians destroying Jerusalem and leading captives away|thumb|The destruction of Jerusalem and the beginning of the [[Babylonian captivity]], as depicted in an early 20th-century [[Bible]] illustration]]
In 589 BC, Zedekiah refused to pay tribute to Nebuchadnezzar, and he was closely followed in this by [[Ithobaal III]], the king of Tyre.{{Sfn|Elayi|2018|p=195}} In 587 BC, Ammon, Edom and Moab likewise rebelled.<ref name="chap-iron">{{cite book |last=al-Nahar |first=Maysoun |title=Atlas of Jordan |date=11 June 2014 |publisher=Presses de l'Ifpo |isbn=9782351594384 |editor-last=Ababsa |editor-first=Myriam |series=Contemporain publications |pages=126–130 |chapter=The Iron Age and the Persian Period (1200–332 BC) |access-date=16 June 2018 |chapter-url=http://books.openedition.org/ifpo/5075 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617051103/http://books.openedition.org/ifpo/5075 |archive-date=17 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> In response to Zedekiah's uprising,{{Sfn|Beaulieu|2018|p=228}} Nebuchadnezzar conquered and destroyed the Kingdom of Judah in 586 BC,{{Sfn|Beaulieu|2018|p=228}}{{Sfn|Ephʿal|2003|p=183}} one of the great achievements of his reign.{{Sfn|Beaulieu|2018|p=228}}{{Sfn|Ephʿal|2003|p=183}} The campaign, which probably ended in the summer of 586 BC, resulted in the plunder and destruction of the city of Jerusalem, a permanent end to Judah, and it led to the [[Babylonian captivity]], as the Jews were captured and deported to Babylonia.{{Sfn|Beaulieu|2018|p=228}} Archaeological excavations confirm that Jerusalem and the surrounding area was destroyed and depopulated. It is possible that the intensity of the destruction carried out by Nebuchadnezzar at Jerusalem and elsewhere in the Levant was due to the implementation of something akin to a [[scorched earth]]-policy, aimed at stopping Egypt from gaining a foothold there.{{Sfn|Beaulieu|2018|p=229}}

Some Jewish administration was allowed to remain in the region under the governor [[Gedaliah]], governing from [[Mizpah in Benjamin|Mizpah]] under close Babylonian monitoring.{{Sfn|Beaulieu|2018|p=228}} According to the Bible, and the 1st-century AD Jewish historian [[Flavius Josephus]], Zedekiah attempted to flee after resisting the Babylonians, but was captured at [[Jericho]] and suffered a terrible fate. According to the narrative, Nebuchadnezzar wanted to make an example out of him given that Zedekiah was not an ordinary vassal, but a vassal directly appointed by Nebuchadnezzar. As such, Zedekiah was supposedly taken to [[Riblah]] in northern Syria, where he had to watch his sons being executed before having his eyes gouged out and sent to be imprisoned in Babylon.{{Sfn|Elayi|2018|p=196}}

Per the Books of Kings in the Bible, the campaign against Judah was longer than typical Mesopotamian wars, with the siege of Jerusalem lasting 18–30 months (depending on the calculation), rather than the typical length of less than a year. Whether the unusual length of the siege indicates that the Babylonian army was weak, unable to break into the city for more than a year, or that Nebuchadnezzar by this time had succeeded in stabilising his rule in Babylonia and could thus wage war patiently without being pressured by time to escalate the siege, is not certain.{{Sfn|Ephʿal|2003|p=183}}

=== Later military campaigns ===
{{See also|Siege of Tyre (586–573 BC)}}
[[File:Siege of Tyre by Nebuchadnezzar II.jpg|alt=Artwork depicting Nebuchadnezzar's siege of Tyre|thumb|''Tyre besieged by Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon'', by Stanley Llewellyn Wood, 1915]]
It is possible that the Egyptians took advantage of the Babylonians being preoccupied with besieging Jerusalem. Herodotus describes Pharaoh Apries as campaigning in the Levant, taking the city of Sidon and fighting the Tyrians, which indicates a renewed Egyptian invasion of the Levant.{{Sfn|Elayi|2018|p=195}} Apries is unlikely to have been as successful as Herodotus describes, given that it is unclear how the Egyptian navy would have defeated the superior navies of the Phoenician cities, and even if some cities had been taken, they must have shortly thereafter fallen into Babylonian hands again.{{Sfn|Elayi|2018|p=196}} Tyre had rebelled against Nebuchadnezzar at around the same time as Judah, and Nebuchadnezzar moved to retake the city after his successful subduing of the Jews.{{Sfn|Elayi|2018|p=196}}

The biblical [[Book of Ezekiel]] describes Tyre in 571 BC as if it had been recently captured by the Babylonian army.{{Sfn|Ephʿal|2003|p=184}} The supposed length of the siege, 13 years,{{Sfn|Ephʿal|2003|p=186}} is only given by Flavius Josephus, and is subject to debate among modern scholars.{{Sfn|Beaulieu|2018|p=229}} Josephus's account of Nebuchadnezzar's reign is obviously not entirely historic, as he describes Nebuchadnezzar as, five years after the destruction of Jerusalem, invading Egypt, capturing the Pharaoh and appointing another Pharaoh in his place.{{Sfn|Ephʿal|2003|p=183}} A stele from [[Tahpanhes]] uncovered in 2011 records that Nebuchadnezzar attempted to invade Egypt in 582 BC, although Apries' forces managed to repel the invasion.{{Sfn|Kahn|2018|pp=72–73}} 

Josephus states that Nebuchadnezzar besieged Tyre in the seventh year of "his" reign, though it is unclear whether "his" in this context refers to Nebuchadnezzar or to Ithobaal III of Tyre. If it refers to Nebuchadnezzar, a siege begun in 598 BC and lasting for thirteen years, later simultaneously with the siege of Jerusalem, is unlikely to have gone unmentioned in Babylonian records. If the seventh year of Ithobaal is intended, the beginning of the siege may conjecturally be placed after Jerusalem's fall. If the siege lasting 13 years is taken at face value, the siege would then not have ended before 573 or 572 BC.{{Sfn|Ephʿal|2003|p=186}} The supposed length of the siege can be ascribed to the difficulty in besieging the city: Tyre was located on an island 800 metres from the coast, and could not be taken without naval support. Though the city withstood numerous sieges, it would not be captured until [[Alexander the Great]]'s siege in 332 BC.{{Sfn|Ephʿal|2003|p=187}}

In the end, the siege was resolved without a need of battle and did not result in the Tyre being conquered.{{Sfn|Beaulieu|2018|p=229}}{{Sfn|Ephʿal|2003|p=187}} It seems Tyre's king and Nebuchadnezzar came to an agreement for Tyre to continue to be ruled by vassal kings, though probably under heavier Babylonian control than before. Documents from Tyre near the end of Nebuchadnezzar's reign demonstrate that the city had become a centre for Babylonian military affairs in the region.{{Sfn|Beaulieu|2018|p=229}} According to later Jewish tradition, it is possible that Ithobaal III was deposed and taken as a prisoner to Babylon, with another king, Baal II, proclaimed by Nebuchadnezzar in his place.{{Sfn|Elayi|2018|p=200}}

It is possible that Nebuchadnezzar campaigned against Egypt in 568 BC,{{Sfn|Ephʿal|2003|p=|pp=187–188}}{{Sfn|Elayi|2018|p=201}} given that a fragmentary Babylonian inscription, given the modern designation BM 33041, from that year records the word "Egypt" as well as possibly traces of the name "Amasis" (the name of the then incumbent Pharaoh, [[Amasis II]], {{Reign}}570–526 BC). A stele of Amasis, also fragmentary, may also describe a combined naval and land attack by the Babylonians. Recent evidence suggests that the Babylonians were initially successful during the invasion and gained a foothold in Egypt, but they were repelled by Amasis' forces.{{Sfn|Kahn|2018|pp=77}} If Nebuchadnezzar did campaign against Egypt again, he was unsuccessful again, given that Egypt did not come under Babylonian rule.{{Sfn|Ephʿal|2003|p=|pp=187–188}}

Nebuchadnezzar's campaigns in the Levant, most notably those directed towards Jerusalem and Tyre, completed the Neo-Babylonian Empire's transformation from a [[rump state]] of the Neo-Assyrian Empire to the new dominant power of the ancient Near East.{{Sfn|Beaulieu|2018|p=229}} Still, Nebuchadnezzar's military accomplishments can be questioned,{{Sfn|Elayi|2018|p=190}} given that the borders of his empire, by the end of his reign, had not noticeably increased in size and that he had not managed to conquer Egypt. Even after a reign of several decades, Nebuchadnezzar's greatest victory remained his victory over the Egyptians at Carchemish in 605 BC, before he even became king.{{Sfn|Ephʿal|2003|p=189}}

=== Building projects ===
[[File:Ishtar Gate at Berlin Museum.jpg|alt=Photograph of the restored Ishtar Gate|thumb|Babylon's [[Ishtar Gate]], [[Pergamon Museum|Pergamon Museum in Berlin]], restored and beautified in the reign of Nebuchadnezzar]]
The Babylonian king was traditionally a builder and restorer, and as such large-scale building projects were important as a legitimizing factor for Babylonian rulers.'''{{Sfn|Porter|1993|p=66}}''' Nebuchadnezzar extensively expanded and rebuilt his capital city of Babylon and the most modern historical and archaeological interpretations of the city reflect it as it appeared after Nebuchadnezzar's construction projects.{{Sfn|Beaulieu|2018|p=229}} The projects were made possible through the prospering economy during Nebuchadnezzar's reign, sustained by his conquests.{{Sfn|Beaulieu|2018|p=230}} His building inscriptions record work done to numerous temples, notably the restoration of the [[Esagila]], the main temple of Babylon's national deity [[Marduk]], and the completion of the [[Etemenanki]], a great [[ziggurat]] dedicated to Marduk.{{Sfn|Beaulieu|2018|p=229}}
[[File:Babylon map.png|alt=City plan of Babylon|thumb|A city plan of Babylon, showing major points of interest. The outer walls and the northern Summer Palace are not shown.]]
Extensive work was also conducted on civil and military structures. Among the most impressive efforts was the work done surrounding the city's northern ceremonial entrance, the [[Ishtar Gate]]. These projects included restoration work on the South Palace, inside the city walls, the construction of a completely new North Palace, on the other side of the walls facing the gate, as well as the restoration of Babylon's Processional Street, which led through the gate, and of the gate itself.{{Sfn|Beaulieu|2018|p=230}} The ruins of Nebuchadnezzar's North Palace are poorly preserved and as such its structure and appearance are not entirely understood. Nebuchadnezzar also constructed a third palace, the Summer Palace, built some distance north of the inner city walls in the northernmost corner of the outer walls.'''{{Sfn|Baker|2012|p=924}}'''

The restored Ishtar Gate was decorated with blue and yellow glazed bricks and depictions of bulls (symbols of the god [[Adad]]) and dragons (symbols of the god Marduk). Similar bricks were used for the walls surrounding the Processional Street, which also featured depictions of lions (symbols of the goddess Ishtar).{{Sfn|Beaulieu|2018|p=230}} Babylon's Processional Street, the only such street yet excavated in Mesopotamia, ran along the eastern walls of the South Palace and exited the inner city walls at the Ishtar Gate, running past the North Palace. To the south, this street went by the Etemenanki, turning to the west and going over a bridge constructed either under the reign of Nabopolassar or Nebuchadnezzar.{{Sfn|Baker|2012|p=925}}

Some of the bricks of the Processional Street bear the name of the Neo-Assyrian king [[Sennacherib]] ({{Reign}}705–681 BC) on their underside, perhaps indicating that construction of the street had begun already during his reign, but the fact that the upper side of the bricks all bear the name of Nebuchadnezzar suggests that construction of the street was completed under Nebuchadnezzar's reign.'''{{Sfn|Baker|2012|p=925}}''' Glazed bricks such as the ones used in the Procession Street were also used in the throne room of the South Palace, which was decorated with depictions of lions and tall, stylized palm trees.{{Sfn|Beaulieu|2018|p=230}}

Nebuchadnezzar also directed building efforts on the city of [[Borsippa]], with several of his inscriptions recording restoration work on that city's temple, the [[Ezida]], dedicated to the god Nabu. Additionally, Nebuchadnezzar also restored the ziggurat of the Ezida, the E-urme-imin-anki, and also worked on the temple of [[Gula (goddess)|Gula]], Etila, as well as numerous other temples and shrines in the city. Nebuchadnezzar also repaired Borsippa's walls.{{Sfn|Beaulieu|2018|p=|pp=230–231}}

Other great building projects by Nebuchadnezzar include the Nar-Shamash, a canal to bring water from the Euphrates close to the city of Sippar, and the [[Median Wall]], a large defensive structure built to defend Babylonia against incursions from the north.{{Sfn|Beaulieu|2018|p=232}} The Median Wall was one of two walls built to protect Babylonia's northern border. Further evidence that Nebuchadnezzar believed the north to be the most likely point of attack for his enemies comes from that he fortified the walls of northern cities, such as Babylon, Borsippa and [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]], but left the walls of southern cities, such as [[Ur]] and Uruk, as they were.'''{{Sfn|Baker|2012|p=926}}''' Nebuchadnezzar also began work on the Royal Canal, also known as Nebuchadnezzar's Canal, a great canal linking the Euphrates to the Tigris which in time completely transformed the agriculture of the region, but the structure was not completed until the reign of [[Nabonidus]], who ruled as the last king of the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] from 556 to 539 BC.{{Sfn|Beaulieu|2018|p=232}}

=== Death and succession ===
Nebuchadnezzar died at Babylon in 562 BC.{{Sfn|Mark|2018|p=}} The last known tablet dated to Nebuchadnezzar's reign, from Uruk, is dated to the same day, 7 October, as the first known tablet of his successor, [[Amel-Marduk]], from Sippar.{{Sfn|Parker|Dubberstein|1942|p=10}} Amel-Marduk's administrative duties probably began before he became king, during the last few weeks or months of his father's reign when Nebuchadnezzar was ill and dying.{{Sfn|Weiershäuser|Novotny|2020|p=1}} Having ruled for 43 years, Nebuchadnezzar's reign was the longest of his dynasty{{Sfn|Sack|2004|p=2}} and he would be remembered favourably by the Babylonians.{{Sfn|Nielsen|2015|p=63}}

Amel-Marduk's accession does not appear to have gone smoothly.{{Sfn|Ayali-Darshan|2012|p=26}} Amel-Marduk was not the eldest living son of Nebuchadnezzar and the reason why he was picked as crown prince is not known.{{Sfn|Ayali-Darshan|2012|p=27}}{{Sfn|Abraham|2012|p=124}} The choice is especially strange given that some sources suggest that the relationship between Nebuchadnezzar and Amel-Marduk was particularly poor, with one surviving text describing both as parties in some form of conspiracy and accusing one of them (the text is too fragmentary to determine which one) of failing in the most important duties of Babylonian kingship through exploiting Babylon's populace and desecrating its temples.{{Sfn|Ayali-Darshan|2012|p=27}} Amel-Marduk also at one point appears to have been imprisoned by his father, possibly on account of the Babylonian aristocracy having proclaimed him as king while Nebuchadnezzar was away.{{Sfn|Weiershäuser|Novotny|2020|p=1}} It is possible that Nebuchadnezzar intended to replace Amel-Marduk as heir with another son, but died before doing so.{{Sfn|Ayali-Darshan|2012|p=29}}

In one of Nebuchadnezzar's late inscriptions, written more than forty years into his reign, he wrote that he had been chosen for the kingship by the gods before he was even born. Mesopotamian rulers typically only stressed divine legitimacy in this fashion when their actual legitimacy was questionable, a method often employed by usurpers. Given that Nebuchadnezzar at this point had been king for several decades and was the legitimate heir of his predecessor, the inscription is very strange, unless it was intended to help legitimize Nebuchadnezzar's successor, Amel-Marduk, who as a younger son and a former conspirator could be seen as politically problematic.{{Sfn|Ayali-Darshan|2012|p=26}}