Editing NORAD (section)

==History==
The North American Air Defense Command was recommended by the Joint Canadian–U.S. Military Group in late 1956, approved by the U.S. [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]] in February 1957, and announced in August 1957.<ref>{{Cite report |last=Sturm |first=Thomas A. |date=January 1965 |title=Command and Control for North American Air Defense, 1959–1963 |publisher=Liaison Office, USAF History Division |pages=14–7}} (cited by Schaffel p. 251 & 315)</ref> NORAD's command headquarters was established on 12 September 1957 at [[Ent Air Force Base]]'s 1954 blockhouse.<ref>{{Cite report |last=McMullen |first=Richard F. |year=1965 |title=Command and Control Planning, 1958–1965 |pages=1–2}} (cited by Schaffel p. 252 & 315)</ref> In 1958, Canada and the United States agreed that the NORAD commander would always be a United States officer, with a Canadian vice commander. Canada "agreed the command's primary purpose would be ... early warning and defense for the [[Strategic Air Command]]'s (SAC)'s retaliatory forces".{{r|Schaffel}}{{Rp|252}} 

In late 1958, Canada and the United States started the [[Continental Air Defense Integration North]] (CADIN) for the [[Semi-Automatic Ground Environment]] air defense network.{{r|Schaffel}}{{Rp|253}} The initial CADIN cost-sharing agreement between the two countries was signed in January 1959.<!--{{rp|72}}--> Two December 1958 plans submitted by NORAD had "average yearly expenditure of around five and one half billions", including "cost of the accelerated Nike Zeus program" and three [[Ballistic Missile Early Warning System]] (BMEWS) sites.{{r|NORAD1959B}}

[[File:NORADBlast-Doors.jpg|thumb|The 25-ton North [[Blast shelter#Design|blast door]] in the [[Cheyenne Mountain nuclear bunker]] is the main entrance to another blast door in the background, beyond which the side tunnel branches into access tunnels to the main chambers.]]
Canada's NORAD bunker at [[CFB North Bay]] with a SAGE [[AN/FSQ-7 Combat Direction Central]] computer was constructed from 1959 to 1963. Each of the USAF's eight smaller [[AN/FSQ-8 Combat Control Central]] systems provided NORAD with data and could command the entire United States air defense. The RCAF's 1950 "ground observer system, the [[Long Range Air Raid Warning System]]", was discontinued.<ref>''Canadian Long Range Early Warning'' (letter to HQ [[Western Air Defense Force|WADF]]), [[Continental Air Command|CONAC]], 16 October 1950 (cited by Schaffel p. 138 & 304)</ref> In January 1959, the United States [[Ground Observer Corps]] was deactivated.{{r|Schaffel}}{{Rp|222}} 

The Cheyenne Mountain nuclear bunker's planned mission was expanded in August 1960 to "a hardened center from which CINCNORAD would supervise and direct operations ''against space attack'' as well as air attack".<ref name=ARDC>{{Cite report |title=title [[To be announced|tbd]] |publisher=[[Air Force Systems Command|Air Research and Development Command]]}} (cited by Schaffel, p. 262)</ref> In October 1960, the Secretary of Defense assigned, "operational command of all space surveillance to [[Continental Air Defense Command]] (CONAD) and operational control to North American Air Defense Command (NORAD)".<ref name=Sturdevant>{{Cite report |series=AAS History Series |volume=18 |editor=Launius, Roger D |year=1995 |chapter=Chapter 7: The United States Air Force Organizes for Space: The Operational Quest |last=Sturdevant |first=Rick W |title=Organizing for the Use of Space: Historical Perspectives on a Persistent Issue |publisher=Univelt for the [[American Astronautical Society]] |issn=0730-3564}}</ref>

In December 1960, the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]] (JCS) placed the Ent Air Force Base [[Space Detection and Tracking System]] (496L System with [[Philco]] 2000 Model 212 computer){{r|Weeden}} "under the operational control of CINCNORAD ",{{r|LeonardV2}} during the Cheyenne Mountain nuclear bunker excavation, and the joint SAC-NORAD exercise "[[Operation Skyshield|Sky Shield]] II". In September 1962—"Sky Shield III" were conducted for mock penetration of NORAD sectors.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.atlasmissilesilo.com/Documents/SquadronUnitHistory/AtlasF/579thSMS/AF-D-O-579-99-RO-00009_6thBombWing_UnitHistory_1962_09_September.pdf |title=p. 17, PDF |access-date=10 September 2012 |archive-date=21 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055807/http://www.atlasmissilesilo.com/Documents/SquadronUnitHistory/AtlasF/579thSMS/AF-D-O-579-99-RO-00009_6thBombWing_UnitHistory_1962_09_September.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 1963, NORAD command center operations moved from Ent Air Force Base to the partially underground "Combined Operations Center" for [[Aerospace Defense Command]] and NORAD at the [[Chidlaw Building]].{{r|Chronology}} President [[John F. Kennedy]] visited "NORAD headquarters" after the 5 June 1963 [[United States Air Force Academy]] graduation. On 30 October 1964, "NORAD began manning" the Combat Operations Center in the [[Cheyenne Mountain Complex]].{{r|LeonardV2}}  

In 1965, about 250,000 United States and Canadian personnel were involved in the operation of NORAD,{{Failed verification|Renault doesn't say these were NORAD personnel, but that they were United States and Canadian personnel, which included non-NORAD people (e.g., no interceptor personnel were in NORAD units)|date=September 2012}}<ref name=Renuart>{{cite journal |last=Renuart | first=Victor E. Jr. |year=2009 |title=The Enduring Value of NORAD |url=https://archive.org/stream/jfq-54-nsia/jfq-54#page/n93/mode/1up |journal=Joint Force Quarterly |volume=54 |pages=92–6}}</ref> On 1 January 1966, [[Air Force Systems Command]] turned the COC over to NORAD.{{r|DelPapa}}  The NORAD Cheyenne Mountain Complex was accepted on 8 February 1966.{{r|LeonardV2}}{{Rp|319}}

===1968 reorganization===
[[United States Department of Defense]] realignments for the NORAD command organization began on 15 November 1968 (e.g., [[Army Air Defense Command]] (ARADCOM)).<ref>{{cite report |title=Upper Reservation of Fort Mac Arthur Historic District |url=http://www.ftmac.org/downloads/SHPOrevision/FtMacArthurFinalCommission.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.ftmac.org/downloads/SHPOrevision/FtMacArthurFinalCommission.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|quote=On November 15, 1968, as part of the internal reorganization of the Army Air Defense Command (ARADCOM), the 47th Artillery Brigade was transferred east. the Army Air Defense command at Fort MacArthur became the 19th Artillery Group (Air Defense). This change was made to align ARADCOM units in accordance with a reorganization of the North American Air Defense Command (NORAD).}}<!--pdf 29--><!--br>{{Cite journal |last=Moeller |first=Colonel Stephen P |date=May–June 1995 |title=Vigilant and Invincible |url=http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/airdef/vigilant.htm  |journal=ADA Magazine }} [covers the [[U.S. Army Air Defense Command]] (ARADCOM) 1950s–1974]}}<br />Rings of Supersonic Steel: Air Defenses of the United States Army 1950–1979--></ref> By 1972, there were eight NORAD "regional areas&nbsp;... for all air defense".<ref name=Digest>{{cite book |date=1972 |at=North American Air Defense Command |chapter=Chapter 1: Air Defense Doctrine and Procedures |chapter-url=http://ed-thelen.org/72digest1.html#1a|title=U.S. Army Air Defense Digest, 1972 |location=Hillman Hall, [[Fort Bliss]], Texas |publisher=<!--U.S. Army Air Defense School--> |access-date=19 September 2012 |quote=Currently, the North American Continent is divided into eight regional areas (fig 2) of air defense responsibility· Each region commander is responsible to CINCNORAD for all air defense activity within his designated area. … The average number of unknowns in the system has steadily declined over the years until now the number is approximately 40 per month.}}</ref> The NORAD Cheyenne Mountain Complex Improvements Program (427M System){{r|DelPapa}} became operational in 1979.{{r|CMU}}

===False alarms===
On at least three occasions, NORAD systems failed, such as on 9 November 1979, when a technician in NORAD loaded a test tape, but failed to switch the system status to "test", causing a stream of constant false warnings to spread to two "[[continuity of government]]" bunkers as well as command posts worldwide.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The 3am Phone Call: False Warnings of Soviet Missile Attacks during 1979–80 Led to Alert Actions for U.S. Strategic Forces|journal=National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 371 |publisher=National Security Archive, George Washington University |location=Washington D.C. |date=1 March 2012 |url=https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/nukevault/ebb371/index.htm}}</ref> On 3 June 1980, and again on 6 June 1980, a [[Computer network|computer communications]] device failure caused warning messages to sporadically flash in U.S. Air Force command posts around the world that a [[Nuclear warfare|nuclear attack]] was taking place.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archive.gao.gov/f0102/115265.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://archive.gao.gov/f0102/115265.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=NORAD's Missile Warning System: What Went Wrong? (MASAD-81-30)|date=15 May 1981|publisher=U.S. Government Accountability Office |access-date=3 November 2010}}<br />{{cite web |url=http://archive.gao.gov/d25t7/139055.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://archive.gao.gov/d25t7/139055.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Attack Warning: Better Management Required to Resolve NORAD Integration Deficiencies (IMTEC-89-26)|date=7 July 1989 |publisher=U.S. Government Accountability Office |access-date=3 November 2010}}</ref> 

During these incidents, [[Pacific Air Forces]] (PACAF) properly had their planes loaded with nuclear bombs in the air. [[Strategic Air Command]] (SAC) did not and received criticism,{{By whom|date=February 2017}} because they did not follow procedure, even though the SAC command knew these were almost certainly [[false alarm]]s, as did PACAF.{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}} Both command posts had recently begun receiving and processing direct reports from the various radar, satellite, and other missile attack detection systems, and those direct reports simply did not match the erroneous data received from NORAD.{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}}

===1980 reorganization===
[[File:North Radar System.png|thumb|The [[North Warning System]] as envisioned by Canada and the US in 1987]]

Following the 1979 Joint US-Canada Air Defense Study, the command structure for aerospace defense was changed, e.g., "SAC assumed control of [[United States Space Surveillance Network|ballistic missile warning and space surveillance facilities]]" on 1 December 1979 from ADCOM.{{r|Winkler}}{{Rp|48}} The Aerospace Defense Command major command ended 31 March 1980. Its organizations in Cheyenne Mountain became the "ADCOM" ''specified'' command under the same commander as NORAD,{{r|Chronology}}<!--{{Rp|FAS}}--> e.g., HQ NORAD/ADCOM J31 manned the Space Surveillance Center. 

In 1982, a NORAD Off-site Test Facility<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.af.mil/information/bios/bio_print.asp?bioID=10585&page=1 |title=Brigadier General David A. Cotton |publisher=U.S. Air Force |access-date=17 December 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121212030914/http://www.af.mil/information/bios/bio_print.asp?bioID=10585&page=1 |archive-date=12 December 2012 |url-status=dead  }}</ref> called the Test and Development Facility (TDF) was located at Peterson AFB.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gao.justia.com/department-of-defense/1991/4/attack-warning-imtec-91-23/IMTEC-91-23-full-report.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://gao.justia.com/department-of-defense/1991/4/attack-warning-imtec-91-23/IMTEC-91-23-full-report.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Attack Warning. Costs to Modernize NORAD's Computer System Significantly Understated  |date=1991 |website=gao.justia.com }}</ref> The [[DEW Line]] was to be replaced with the [[North Warning System]] (NWS), the [[Over-the-horizon radar|Over-the-Horizon Backscatter]] (OTH-B) radar was to be deployed, more advanced fighters were deployed, and E-3 Sentry [[Airborne early warning and control|AWACS aircraft]] were planned for greater use. These recommendations were accepted by the governments in 1985.  The United States Space Command was formed in September 1985 as an adjunct, but not a component of NORAD.

NORAD was renamed ''North American Aerospace Defense Command'' in March 1981.

===Post–Cold War===
In 1989, NORAD operations expanded to cover counter-drug operations, for example, tracking of small aircraft entering and operating within the United States and Canada.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nuke.fas.org/guide/usa/c3i/cmc.htm|title=Cheyenne Mountain Complex - United States Nuclear Forces|website=nuke.fas.org}}</ref> DEW line sites were replaced between 1986 and 1995 by the North Warning System. The Cheyenne Mountain site was upgraded, but none of the proposed [[OTH-B]] radars are currently in operation.

After the [[September 11 attacks]], the NORAD Air Warning Center's mission included the interior airspace of North America.<ref name="Cheyenne Mountain Division - Air Warning Center (AWC) by NORAD Public Affairs">{{cite web|url=http://www.norad.mil/about/CMOC_2.html |title=Cheyenne Mountain Complex |at=AWC [Air Warning Center]|publisher=NORAD Public Affairs |access-date=9 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121005065851/http://www.norad.mil/about/cmoc_2.html|archive-date=2012-10-05}}</ref>

The Cheyenne Mountain Realignment<ref name=GAO>{{cite report |last=D'Agostino |first=Davi M |date=21 May 2007 |title=Defense Infrastructure: Full Costs and Security Implications of Cheyenne Mountain Realignment Have Not Been Determined [GAO—07-803R] |url=http://www.gao.gov/assets/100/94893.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.gao.gov/assets/100/94893.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |publisher=[[Government Accountability Office|United States General Accounting Office]] |access-date=9 September 2012}}</ref> was announced in July 2006, to consolidate NORAD's day-to-day operations at [[Peterson Air Force Base]].<ref name="After 4 Decades, a Cold War Symbol Stands Down, 29 July. 2006, by Kirk Johnson">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/29/washington/29norad.html?_r=2&oref=slogin |title=After 4 Decades, a Cold War Symbol Stands Down |author=Kirk Johnson |access-date=31 December 2009 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=29 July 2006}}</ref> Cheyenne Mountain remains on "warm standby", staffed with support personnel.

{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
|-
| colspan="14" style="background:silver; text-align:center;"| '''Former NORAD Regions/Sectors'''
|-
| 
| 1966
| 1967
| 1968
| 1969
| 1970–1983
| 1984
| 1985–1986
| 1987
| 1988–1990
| 1991–1992
| 1993–1995
| 1996–2005
| 2006–2009
|-
| [[20th Air Division]]
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| 1966–1967
| style="text-align:center; border:none"| 
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| 1969–1983
|-
| [[21st Air Division]]
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| 1966–1967
| style="text-align:center; border:none"| 
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| 1969–1983
|-
| 22nd Air Division
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="8"| 1966–1987
|-
| [[23rd Air Division (United States)|23rd Air Division]]
| style="text-align:center; border:none" colspan="3"|
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="5"| 1969–1987
|-
| [[24th Air Division]]
| style="text-align:center; border:none" colspan="3"|
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="6"| 1969–1990
|-
| [[25th Air Division]] 
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="9"| 1966–1990
|-
| [[26th Air Division]]
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="9"| 1966–1990
|-
| [[27th Air Division]]
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="4"| 1966–1969
|-
| [[28th Air Division]]
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="4"| 1966–1969
| style="text-align:center; border:none" colspan="2"| 
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="4"| 1985–1992
|-
| [[29th Air Division]]
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="4"| 1966–1969
|-
| [[30th Air Division]]
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="3"| 1966–1968
|-
| [[31st Air Division]]
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="4"| 1966–1969
|-
| [[32d Air Division|32nd Air Division]]
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="4"| 1966–1969
|-
| [[34th Air Division]]
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="4"| 1966–1969
|-
| [[35th Air Division]]
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="4"| 1966–1969
|-
| [[36th Air Division]]
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="4"| 1966–1969
|-
| [[Western Air Defense Sector#History|Western Air Defense Sector]] (WADS)
| style="text-align:center; border:none" colspan="7"|
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="4"| 1987–1995
|-
| [[Eastern Air Defense Sector#History|Eastern Air Defense Sector]] (EADS)
| style="text-align:center; border:none" colspan="7"|
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="6"| 1987–2009
|-
| [[Southeast Air Defense Sector]] (SEADS)
| style="text-align:center; border:none" colspan="7"|
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="5"| 1987–2005
|-
| [[Southwest Air Defense Sector]] (SWADS)
| style="text-align:center; border:none" colspan="7"|
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="4"| 1987–1995
|}
{{clear}}