Editing Mongolia (section)

=== Modern history ===
{{Main|Mongolian Revolution of 1911|Bogd Khanate of Mongolia|Mongolian Revolution of 1921|Mongolian People's Republic|Mongolian Revolution of 1990|History of modern Mongolia}}
[[File:BogdKhan.jpg|thumb|upright|The eighth [[Jebtsundamba Khutuktu]], Bogd Khaan]]
[[File:Map-of-Unified-Mongolia-1917.jpg|thumb|Map of unified Mongolia in 1917]]

With the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, Mongolia under the [[Bogd Khaan]] declared its independence. However, the newly established [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] considered Mongolia to be part of its own territory. [[Yuan Shikai]], the [[President of the Republic of China]], considered the new republic to be the [[Successor state|successor]] of the Qing. Bogd Khaan said that [[Qing dynasty in Inner Asia|both Mongolia and China]] had been administered by the Manchu during the Qing, and after the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, the contract of Mongolian submission to the Manchu had become invalid.<ref>Bawden, Charles (1968): ''The Modern History of Mongolia.'' Weidenfeld & Nicolson: 194–195</ref>

The area controlled by the Bogd Khaan was approximately that of the former [[Outer Mongolia]] during the Qing period. In 1919, after the [[October Revolution]] in Russia, Chinese troops led by warlord [[Xu Shuzheng]] occupied Mongolia. Warfare erupted on the northern border. As a result of the [[Russian Civil War]], the [[White movement|White]] Russian Lieutenant General [[Roman Ungern von Sternberg|Baron Ungern]] led his troops into Mongolia in October 1920, defeating the Chinese forces in [[Ulaanbaatar|Niislel Khüree]] (now Ulaanbaatar) in early February 1921 with Mongol support.

To eliminate the threat posed by Ungern, [[Russian SFSR|Bolshevik Russia]] decided to support the establishment of a communist Mongolian government and army. This Mongolian army took the [[Altanbulag, Selenge|Mongolian part]] of [[Kyakhta]] from Chinese forces on 18 March 1921, and on 6 July, Russian and Mongolian troops arrived in Khüree. Mongolia declared its independence again on 11 July 1921.<ref>Thomas E. Ewing, "Russia, China, and the Origins of the Mongolian People's Republic, 1911–1921: A Reappraisal", in: ''The Slavonic and East European Review'', Vol. 58, No. 3 (Jul. 1980), pp. 399, 414, 415, 417, 421</ref> As a result, Mongolia was closely aligned with the Soviet Union over the next seven decades.

==== Mongolian People's Republic ====
In 1924, after the [[Bogd Khaan]] died of [[laryngeal cancer]]<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Кузьмин, С.Л. |last2=[Kuzmin, S.L.] |last3=Оюунчимэг, Ж. |last4=[Oyunchimeg, J.] |title=Буддизм и революция в Монголии |trans-title=Buddhism and the revolution in Mongolia |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/54133527/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC-%D0%B8-%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F-%D0%B2-%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B8 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306164044/https://www.scribd.com/doc/54133527/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC-%D0%B8-%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F-%D0%B2-%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B8 |archive-date=March 6, 2016 |language=ru}}</ref> or, as some sources claim, at the hands of Russian spies,<ref>{{YouTube|XuB0b_dEZ5g|Догсомын Бодоо 1/2}} '''(Mongolian)'''</ref> the country's [[political system]] was changed. The [[Mongolian People's Republic]] was established. In 1928, [[Khorloogiin Choibalsan]] rose to power. The early leaders of the Mongolian People's Republic (1921–1952) included many with [[Pan-Mongolism|Pan-Mongolist]] ideals. However, changing global politics and increased Soviet pressure led to the decline of Pan-Mongol aspirations in the following period.

[[File:Horloogiyn Choybalsan.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Khorloogiin Choibalsan]] led Mongolia during the Stalinist era, and presided over an environment of intense political persecution.]]
[[Khorloogiin Choibalsan]] instituted collectivization of livestock, began the destruction of the Buddhist monasteries, and carried out [[Stalinist repressions in Mongolia|Stalinist purges]], which resulted in the murders of numerous monks and other leaders. In Mongolia during the 1920s, approximately one-third of the male population were monks. By the beginning of the 20th century, 750 monasteries were functioning in Mongolia and by the end of the 1930s almost all had been looted or razed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mongolia: The Bhudda and the Khan |url=http://orientmag.com/8-30.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818173717/http://www.orientmag.com/8-30.htm |archive-date=August 18, 2010 |access-date=2013-06-28 |publisher=Orient Magazine}}</ref>

In 1930, the Soviet Union stopped [[Buryats|Buryat]] migration to the [[Mongolian People's Republic]] to prevent Mongolian reunification. All leaders of Mongolia who did not fulfill Stalin's demands to perform [[Red Terror]] against Mongolians were executed, including [[Peljidiin Genden]] and [[Anandyn Amar]]. The [[Great Purge|Stalinist purges in Mongolia]], which began in 1937, killed more than 30,000 people. Under Stalinist influence in the [[Mongolian People's Republic]], an estimated 17,000 monks were killed, official figures show.<ref name="reuters">{{cite news |last=Thomas |first=Natalie |date=2018-06-04 |title=Young monks lead revival of Buddhism in Mongolia after years of repression. |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-mongolia-monks-idUKKCN1J104O |work=Reuters. |access-date=2023-07-06}}</ref> [[Khorloogiin Choibalsan|Choibalsan]], who led a dictatorship and organized [[Stalinist repressions in Mongolia|Stalinist purges in Mongolia]] between 1937 and 1939, died suspiciously in the [[Soviet Union]] in 1952. [[Comintern]] leader [[Bohumír Šmeral]] said, "People of Mongolia are not important, the land is important. Mongolian land is larger than England, France and Germany".<ref name="Mongolia 2003">''History of Mongolia,'' 2003, Volume 5. Mongolian Institute of History</ref>{{page needed|date=August 2021}}

[[File:MNRA soldiers 1939.jpg|right|thumb|Mongolian troops fight against the Japanese counterattack at [[Battles of Khalkhin Gol|Khalkhin Gol]], 1939.]]
After the [[Japanese invasion of Manchuria|Japanese invasion of neighboring Manchuria]] in 1931, Mongolia was threatened on this front. During the [[Battles of Khalkhin Gol|Soviet-Japanese Border War]] of 1939, the Soviet Union successfully defended Mongolia against Japanese expansionism. Mongolia fought against Japan during the [[Battles of Khalkhin Gol]] in 1939 and during the [[Soviet–Japanese War]] in August 1945 to liberate Inner Mongolia from Japan and [[Mengjiang]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Боржигон Хүсэл |date=18 January 2015 |title=1945 ОНД БНМАУ-ААС ХЯТАД УЛСАД ҮЗҮҮЛСЭН ТУСЛАМЖ |trans-title=Mongolian People's Republic supported the Chinese Anti-Japan War in 1945 |url=https://www.mongoliajol.info/index.php/JIS/article/download/394/415 |access-date=2 February 2019 |website=Mongolia Journals Online |archive-date=4 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804060721/https://www.mongoliajol.info/index.php/JIS/article/download/394/415 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Cold War ====
The February 1945 [[Yalta Conference]] provided for the Soviet Union's participation in the [[Pacific War]]. One of the Soviet conditions for its participation, put forward at Yalta, was that after the war Outer Mongolia would retain its independence. [[1945 Mongolian independence referendum|The referendum]] took place on 20 October 1945, with (according to official numbers) 100% of the electorate voting for independence.<ref>Nohlen, D, Grotz, F & Hartmann, C (2001) ''Elections in Asia: A data handbook, Volume II'', p491 {{ISBN|0-19-924959-8}}</ref>

After the establishment of the [[People's Republic of China]], both countries confirmed their mutual recognition on 6 October 1949. However, the [[Republic of China]] used its [[United Nations Security Council veto power|Security Council veto]] in 1955, to stop the admission of the [[Mongolian People's Republic]] to the United Nations on the grounds it recognized all of Mongolia —including Outer Mongolia— as part of China. This was the only time the [[Republic of China and the United Nations|Republic of China]] ever used its veto. Hence, and because of the repeated threats to veto by the ROC, Mongolia did not join the UN until 1961 when the Soviet Union agreed to lift its veto on the admission of [[Mauritania]] (and any other newly independent African state), in return for the admission of Mongolia. Faced with pressure from nearly all the other African countries, the ROC relented under protest. Mongolia and Mauritania were both admitted to the UN on 27 October 1961.<ref name="unveto">{{Cite web |script-title=zh:因常任理事国投反对票而未获通过的决议草案或修正案各段 |url=http://www.un.org/zh/sc/meetings/veto/pdf/a58_47_p2.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323133412/http://www.un.org/zh/sc/meetings/veto/pdf/a58_47_p2.pdf |archive-date=March 23, 2014 |publisher=聯合國 |language=zh |df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="bbcveto">{{Cite news |title=The veto and how to use it |work=BBC News Online |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2828985.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100726080318/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2828985.stm |archive-date=July 26, 2010 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="gpveto">{{Cite web |title=Changing Pattern in the Use of Veto in the Security Council |url=http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/102/32810.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508103405/http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/102/32810.html |archive-date=May 8, 2013 |publisher=Global Policy Forum |df=mdy-all}}</ref> (see [[China and the United Nations]])

[[File:Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal Berlin, VIII.jpg|thumb|150px|Mongolian Premier [[Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal]] was the longest-serving leader in the [[Eastern Bloc]], with over 44 years in office.]]
On 26 January 1952, [[Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal]] took power in Mongolia after the death of Choibalsan. Tsedenbal was the leading political figure in Mongolia for more than 30 years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/tsedenbals-mongolia-and-the-communist-aid-donors-reappraisal|title=Tsedenbal's Mongolia and the Communist Aid Donors: A Reappraisal &#124; Wilson Center|access-date=13 April 2021|archive-date=13 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413123041/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/tsedenbals-mongolia-and-the-communist-aid-donors-reappraisal|url-status=live}}</ref> While Tsedenbal was visiting Moscow in August 1984, his severe illness prompted the parliament to announce his retirement and replace him with [[Jambyn Batmönkh]].

==== Post-Cold War ====
The [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991 strongly influenced Mongolian politics and [[Youth in Mongolia|youth]]. Its people undertook the [[Mongolian Revolution of 1990|peaceful Democratic Revolution]] in [[Revolutions of 1989|January 1990]] and the introduction of a [[multi-party system]] and a market economy.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=350.org |last2=Hunter |first2=Daniel |date=2024-04-17 |title=Authoritarianism to Democracy: The Story of Mongolia |url=https://commonslibrary.org/authoritarianism-to-democracy-the-story-of-mongolia/ |access-date=2025-02-05 |website=The Commons Social Change Library |language=en-AU}}</ref> At the same time, the transformation of the former [[Marxist-Leninist]] [[Mongolian People's Party|Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party]] to the current social democratic [[Mongolian People's Party]] reshaped the country's political landscape.

A [[Constitution of Mongolia|new constitution]] was introduced in 1992, and the term "People's Republic" was dropped from the country's name.<ref>{{cite news|last=Kim|first=Hyun-bin|date=18 December 2024|url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2024/12/113_388575.html|title=Mongolia celebrates centennial of Mongolian People's Republic|work=The Korea Times|access-date=19 December 2024}}</ref> The [[Economy of Mongolia#Transition to a market economy|transition to a market economy]] was often rocky; during the early 1990s the country had to deal with high inflation and food shortages.<ref>{{Cite book |last=[[Morris Rossabi|Rossabi, Morris]] |url=https://archive.org/details/modernmongoliafr00ross |title=Modern Mongolia: From Khans to Commissars to Capitalists |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0520244191 |location=[[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] |pages=[https://archive.org/details/modernmongoliafr00ross/page/n81 57]–58, 143–144 |url-access=limited}}</ref> The first election victories for non-communist parties came in 1993 (presidential elections) and 1996 (parliamentary elections). China has supported Mongolia's application for membership in the [[Asia Cooperation Dialogue]] (ACD), [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] (APEC) and granting it observer status in the [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2005-06-29 |title="Pan-Mongolism" and U.S.-China-Mongolia relations |url=http://www.jamestown.org/programs/chinabrief/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=3856&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=195&no_cache=1 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151227111904/http://www.jamestown.org/programs/chinabrief/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=3856&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=195&no_cache=1 |archive-date=December 27, 2015 |access-date=2013-04-07 |publisher=Jamestown Foundation |df=mdy-all}}</ref>