Editing Model organism (section)

==Important model organisms==
{{see also | List of model organisms}}

Model organisms are drawn from all three [[Domain (biology)|domains]] of life, as well as [[virus]]es. The most widely studied [[prokaryote|prokaryotic]] model organism is ''[[Escherichia coli]]'' (''E. coli''), which has been intensively investigated for over 60 years. It is a common, [[Gram-negative bacteria|gram-negative]] gut bacterium which can be grown and cultured easily and inexpensively in a laboratory setting. It is the most widely used organism in [[molecular genetics]], and is an important species in the fields of [[biotechnology]] and [[microbiology]], where it has served as the [[host organism]] for the majority of work with [[recombinant DNA]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Bacteria | url=http://www.microbiologyonline.org.uk/about-microbiology/introducing-microbes/bacteria | publisher=Microbiologyonline | access-date=27 February 2014 | archive-date=27 February 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227212658/http://www.microbiologyonline.org.uk/about-microbiology/introducing-microbes/bacteria | url-status=dead }}</ref>

Simple model [[eukaryote]]s include baker's yeast (''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'') and fission yeast (''[[Schizosaccharomyces pombe]]''), both of which share many characters with higher cells, including those of humans. For instance, many [[cell division]] genes that are critical for the development of [[cancer]] have been discovered in yeast. ''[[Chlamydomonas reinhardtii]]'', a unicellular [[green alga]] with well-studied genetics, is used to study [[photosynthesis]] and [[motility]]. ''C. reinhardtii'' has many known and mapped mutants and expressed sequence tags, and there are advanced methods for genetic transformation and selection of genes.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://genome.jgi-psf.org/chlamy |title=Chlamydomonas reinhardtii resources at the Joint Genome Institute |access-date=2007-10-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080723150730/http://genome.jgi-psf.org/chlamy/ |archive-date=2008-07-23 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ''[[Dictyostelium discoideum]]'' is used in [[molecular biology]] and [[genetics]], and is studied as an example of [[cell communication]], [[Cellular differentiation|differentiation]], and [[programmed cell death]].
[[File:Lightmatter lab mice.jpg|thumb|[[Laboratory mouse|Laboratory mice]], widely used in medical research]]

Among invertebrates, the [[Drosophilidae|fruit fly]] ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]'' is famous as the subject of genetics experiments by [[Thomas Hunt Morgan]] and others. They are easily raised in the lab, with rapid generations, high [[fecundity]], few [[chromosome]]s, and easily induced observable mutations.<ref name="Encyclopedia of genetics">{{cite encyclopedia | author=James H. Sang | editor=Eric C. R. Reeve | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of genetics | title=Drosophila melanogaster: The Fruit Fly | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JjLWYKqehRsC&q=drosophila+eggs+day+lifetime&pg=PA157 | access-date=2009-07-01 | date=2001 | publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, I | location=USA | page=157 | isbn=978-1-884964-34-3 }}</ref> The [[nematode]] ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]'' is used for understanding the genetic control of development and physiology. It was first proposed as a model for neuronal development by [[Sydney Brenner]] in 1963, and has been extensively used in many different contexts since then.<ref>{{cite book | author=Riddle, Donald L. | title=C. elegans II | publisher=Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press | location=Plainview, N.Y | year=1997 | isbn=978-0-87969-532-3 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&rid=ce2.TOC }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Brenner | first=S | year=1974 | title=The Genetics of ''Caenorhabditis elegans'' | journal=[[Genetics (journal)|Genetics]] | volume=77 | issue=1 | pages=71–94 | doi=10.1093/genetics/77.1.71 | pmc=1213120 | pmid=4366476}}</ref> ''C. elegans'' was the first multicellular organism whose genome was completely sequenced, and as of 2012, the only organism to have its [[connectome]] (neuronal "wiring diagram") completed.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=White | first1=J | year=1986 | title=The structure of the nervous system of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans | journal=Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. | volume=314 | issue=1165 | pages=1–340 | pmid=22462104 | doi=10.1098/rstb.1986.0056|display-authors=etal| bibcode=1986RSPTB.314....1W | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine | last=Jabr | first=Ferris | date=2012-10-02 | title=The Connectome Debate: Is Mapping the Mind of a Worm Worth It? | url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=c-elegans-connectome | magazine=Scientific American | access-date=2014-01-18
}}</ref>

''[[Arabidopsis thaliana]]'' is currently the most popular model plant. Its small stature and short generation time facilitates rapid genetic studies,<ref name="TAIR">[http://www.arabidopsis.org/portals/education/aboutarabidopsis.jsp#hist About Arabidopsis on The Arabidopsis Information Resource page] ([[The Arabidopsis Information Resource|TAIR]])</ref> and many phenotypic and biochemical mutants have been mapped.<ref name="TAIR" /> ''A. thaliana'' was the first plant to have its [[genome]] [[DNA sequencing|sequenced]].<ref name="TAIR" />

Among [[vertebrate]]s, [[guinea pig]]s (''Cavia porcellus'') were used by [[Robert Koch]] and other early bacteriologists as a host for bacterial infections, becoming a byword for "laboratory animal", but are less commonly used today. The classic model vertebrate is currently the mouse (''[[House mouse|Mus musculus]]''). Many inbred strains exist, as well as lines selected for particular traits, often of medical interest, e.g. body size, obesity, muscularity, and voluntary [[wheel-running]] behavior.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kolb | first1 = E. M. | last2 = Rezende | first2 = E. L. | last3 = Holness | first3 = L. | last4 = Radtke | first4 = A. | last5 = Lee | first5 = S. K. | last6 = Obenaus | first6 = A. | last7 = Garland Jr | first7 = T. | year = 2013 | title = Mice selectively bred for high voluntary wheel running have larger midbrains: support for the mosaic model of brain evolution | journal = [[Journal of Experimental Biology]] | volume = 216 | issue = 3| pages = 515–523 | doi=10.1242/jeb.076000| pmid = 23325861 | title-link = midbrain | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2013JExpB.216..515K }}</ref>
The rat (''[[Rattus norvegicus]]'') is particularly useful as a toxicology model, and as a neurological model and source of primary cell cultures, owing to the larger size of organs and suborganellar structures relative to the mouse, while eggs and embryos from ''[[Xenopus tropicalis]]'' and ''[[Xenopus laevis]]'' (African clawed frog) are used in developmental biology, cell biology, toxicology, and neuroscience.<ref name="wallingford">{{cite journal |last1=Wallingford |first1=John B. |last2=Liu |first2=Karen J. |last3=Zheng |first3=Yixian |title=Xenopus |journal=Current Biology |date=March 2010 |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=R263–R264 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2010.01.012 |pmid=20334828 |bibcode=2010CBio...20.R263W }}</ref><ref name="Harland">{{cite journal | last1=Harland | first1=R.M. | last2=Grainger | first2=R.M. | year=2011 | title=MISSING | journal=Trends in Genetics | volume=27 | issue= 12| pages=507–15 | doi=10.1016/j.tig.2011.08.003 | pmid=21963197 | pmc=3601910}}</ref> Likewise, the [[zebrafish]] (''Danio rerio'') has a nearly transparent body during early development, which provides unique visual access to the animal's internal anatomy during this time period. Zebrafish are used to study development, toxicology and toxicopathology,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Spitsbergen JM, Kent ML | title=The state of the art of the zebrafish model for toxicology and toxicologic pathology research—advantages and current limitations | journal=Toxicol Pathol | volume=31 | issue=Suppl | pages=62–87 | year=2003 | pmid=12597434 | pmc=1909756 | doi=10.1080/01926230390174959}}</ref> specific gene function and roles of signaling pathways.

Other important model organisms and some of their uses include: [[T4 phage]] (viral infection), ''[[Tetrahymena thermophila]]'' (intracellular processes), [[maize]] ([[transposon]]s), ''[[Hydra (genus)|hydra]]s'' ([[Regeneration (biology)|regeneration]] and [[morphogenesis]]),<ref>{{Cite journal
 | last1 = Chapman | first1 = J. A.
 | last2 = Kirkness | first2 = E. F.
 | last3 = Simakov | first3 = O.
 | last4 = Hampson | first4 = S. E.
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 | last9 = Borman | first9 = J.
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 | last12 = Pfannkoch | first12 = C.
 | last13 = Sumin | first13 = N.
 | last14 = Sutton | first14 = G. G.
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 | last16 = Walenz | first16 = B.
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 | last18 = Hellsten | first18 = U.
 | last19 = Kawashima | first19 = T.
 | last20 = Prochnik | first20 = S. E.
 | last21 = Putnam | first21 = N. H.
 | last22 = Shu | first22 = S.
 | last23 = Blumberg | first23 = B.
 | last24 = Dana | first24 = C. E.
 | last25 = Gee | first25 = L.
 | last26 = Kibler | first26 = D. F.
 | last27 = Law | first27 = L.
 | last28 = Lindgens | first28 = D.
 | last29 = Martinez | first29 = D. E.
 | last30 = Peng | first30 = J.
 | title = The dynamic genome of Hydra
 | journal = Nature
 | volume = 464
 | issue = 7288
 | pages = 592–596
 | year = 2010
 | pmid = 20228792
 | doi = 10.1038/nature08830
|bibcode = 2010Natur.464..592C | display-authors = 29
 | pmc = 4479502}}</ref> [[cat]]s (neurophysiology), [[chicken]]s (development), [[dog]]s (respiratory and cardiovascular systems), ''[[turquoise killifish|Nothobranchius furzeri]]'' (aging),<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.cell.2015.01.038| pmid = 25684364| title = A Platform for Rapid Exploration of Aging and Diseases in a Naturally Short-Lived Vertebrate| journal = Cell| volume = 160| issue = 5| pages = 1013–26| year = 2015| last1 = Harel | first1 = I. | last2 = Benayoun | first2 = B. R. N. A. | last3 = Machado | first3 = B. | last4 = Singh | first4 = P. P. | last5 = Hu | first5 = C. K. | last6 = Pech | first6 = M. F. | last7 = Valenzano | first7 = D. R. | last8 = Zhang | first8 = E. | last9 = Sharp | first9 = S. C. | last10 = Artandi | first10 = S. E. | last11 = Brunet | first11 = A. | pmc=4344913}}</ref> non-human primates such as the [[rhesus macaque]] and [[Common chimpanzee|chimpanzee]] ([[hepatitis]], [[HIV]], [[Parkinson's disease]], [[cognition]], and [[vaccine]]s), and [[ferret]]s ([[SARS-CoV-2]])<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Young-Il |last2=Kim |first2=Seong-Gyu |last3=Kim |first3=Se-Mi |last4=Kim |first4=Eun-Ha |last5=Park |first5=Su-Jin |last6=Yu |first6=Kwang-Min |last7=Chang |first7=Jae-Hyung |last8=Kim |first8=Eun Ji |last9=Lee |first9=Seunghun |last10=Casel |first10=Mark Anthony B. |last11=Um |first11=Jihye |last12=Song |first12=Min-Suk |last13=Jeong |first13=Hye Won |last14=Lai |first14=Van Dam |last15=Kim |first15=Yeonjae |date=2020-05-13 |title=Infection and Rapid Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in Ferrets |journal=Cell Host & Microbe |volume=27 |issue=5 |pages=704–709.e2 |doi=10.1016/j.chom.2020.03.023 |issn=1931-3128 |pmc=7144857 |pmid=32259477}}</ref>

===Selected model organisms===
The organisms below have become model organisms because they facilitate the study of certain characters or because of their genetic accessibility. For example, [[Escherichia coli|''E. coli'']] was one of the first organisms for which genetic techniques such as [[Transformation (genetics)|transformation]] or [[Genetic engineering|genetic manipulation]] has been developed.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

The [[genome]]s of all model species have been [[genome sequencing project|sequenced]], including their [[mitochondria]]l/[[chloroplast]] genomes. [[Model organism databases]] exist to provide researchers with a portal from which to download sequences (DNA, RNA, or protein) or to access functional information on specific genes, for example the sub-cellular localization of the gene product or its physiological role.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
! Model Organism
! Common name
! Informal classification
! Usage (examples)
|-
| style="background:#ffdead;" | Virus
|[[Phi X 174]]
|ΦX174
| [[Virus]]
|evolution<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wichman |first1=Holly A. |last2=Brown |first2=Celeste J. |title=Experimental evolution of viruses: Microviridae as a model system |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |date=2010-08-27 |volume=365 |issue=1552 |pages=2495–2501 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0053 |pmid=20643739 |pmc=2935103 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" style="background:#ffdead;" | Prokaryotes
| ''[[Escherichia coli]]''
|''E. coli''
| [[Bacteria]]
|bacterial genetics, metabolism
|-
| ''[[Pseudomonas fluorescens]]''
|''P. fluorescens''
| [[Bacteria]]
|evolution, adaptive radiation<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kassen |first1=Rees |title=Toward a General Theory of Adaptive Radiation |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |date=2009-06-24 |volume=1168 |issue=1 |pages=3–22 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04574.x |pmid=19566701 |bibcode=2009NYASA1168....3K }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="6" style="background:#ffdead;" | Eukaryotes, unicellular
| ''[[Dictyostelium discoideum]]''
|
| [[Amoeba]]
| immunology, host–pathogen interactions<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dunn |first1=Joe Dan |last2=Bosmani |first2=Cristina |last3=Barisch |first3=Caroline |last4=Raykov |first4=Lyudmil |last5=Lefrançois |first5=Louise H. |last6=Cardenal-Muñoz |first6=Elena |last7=López-Jiménez |first7=Ana Teresa |last8=Soldati |first8=Thierry |title=Eat Prey, Live: Dictyostelium discoideum As a Model for Cell-Autonomous Defenses |journal=Frontiers in Immunology |date=2018-01-04 |volume=8 |pages=1906 |doi=10.3389/fimmu.2017.01906 |pmid=29354124 |pmc=5758549 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]''
| Brewer's yeast<br>Baker's yeast
| [[Yeast]]
|cell division, organelles, etc.
|-
| ''[[Schizosaccharomyces pombe]]''
| Fission yeast
| [[Yeast]]
| cell cycle, cytokinesis, chromosome biology, telomeres, DNA metabolism, cytoskeleton organization, industrial applications<ref>[http://www.pombase.org/browse-curation/fypo-slim Fission Yeast GO slim terms | PomBase<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref name="pmid38376816">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rutherford KM, Lera-Ramírez M, Wood V | title = PomBase: a Global Core Biodata Resource-growth, collaboration, and sustainability | journal = Genetics | volume = 227 | issue = 1 | date = 7 May 2024 | pmid = 38376816 | pmc = 11075564  | doi = 10.1093/genetics/iyae007 }}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Chlamydomonas reinhardtii]]''
|
| [[Algae]]
|hydrogen production<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Batyrova |first1=Khorcheska |last2=Hallenbeck |first2=Patrick C. |title=Hydrogen Production by a Chlamydomonas reinhardtii Strain with Inducible Expression of Photosystem II |journal=International Journal of Molecular Sciences |date=2017-03-16 |volume=18 |issue=3 |page=647 |doi=10.3390/ijms18030647 |pmid=28300765 |pmc=5372659 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Tetrahymena thermophila]]'', ''[[Tetrahymena pyriformis|T. pyriformis]]''
|
| [[Ciliate]]
|education,<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-385967-9.00016-5 |pmc=3587665 |chapter=Tetrahymena in the Classroom |title=Tetrahymena Thermophila |series=Methods in Cell Biology |year=2012 |last1=Smith |first1=Joshua J. |last2=Wiley |first2=Emily A. |last3=Cassidy-Hanley |first3=Donna M. |volume=109 |pages=411–430 |pmid=22444155 |isbn=9780123859679 }}</ref> biomedical research<ref>{{cite book |last1=Stefanidou |first1=Maria |chapter=The use of the protozoan Tetrahymena as a cell model |pages=69–88 |editor1-last=Castillo |editor1-first=Victor |editor2-last=Harris |editor2-first=Rodney |title=Protozoa: Biology, Classification and Role in Disease |date=2014 |publisher=Nova Science Publishers |isbn=978-1-62417-073-7 }}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Emiliania huxleyi]]''
|
| [[Plankton]]
|surface sea temperature<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fielding |first1=Samuel R. |title=Emiliania huxleyi specific growth rate dependence on temperature |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |date=March 2013 |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=663–666 |doi=10.4319/lo.2013.58.2.0663 |bibcode=2013LimOc..58..663F |doi-access=free }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" style="background:#ffdead;" | Plants
| ''[[Arabidopsis thaliana]]''
| Thale cress
| [[Flowering plant]]
|population genetics<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Platt |first1=Alexander |last2=Horton |first2=Matthew |last3=Huang |first3=Yu S. |last4=Li |first4=Yan |last5=Anastasio |first5=Alison E. |last6=Mulyati |first6=Ni Wayan |last7=Ågren |first7=Jon |last8=Bossdorf |first8=Oliver |last9=Byers |first9=Diane |last10=Donohue |first10=Kathleen |last11=Dunning |first11=Megan |last12=Holub |first12=Eric B. |last13=Hudson |first13=Andrew |last14=Le Corre |first14=Valérie |last15=Loudet |first15=Olivier |last16=Roux |first16=Fabrice |last17=Warthmann |first17=Norman |last18=Weigel |first18=Detlef |last19=Rivero |first19=Luz |last20=Scholl |first20=Randy |last21=Nordborg |first21=Magnus |last22=Bergelson |first22=Joy |author-link22=Joy Bergelson|last23=Borevitz |first23=Justin O. |title=The Scale of Population Structure in Arabidopsis thaliana |journal=PLOS Genetics |date=2010-02-12 |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=e1000843 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1000843 |pmid=20169178 |pmc=2820523 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Physcomitrella patens]]''
| Spreading earthmoss
| [[Moss]]
| molecular farming<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bohlender |first1=Lennard L. |last2=Parsons |first2=Juliana |last3=Hoernstein |first3=Sebastian N. W. |last4=Rempfer |first4=Christine |last5=Ruiz-Molina |first5=Natalia |last6=Lorenz |first6=Timo |last7=Rodríguez Jahnke |first7=Fernando |last8=Figl |first8=Rudolf |last9=Fode |first9=Benjamin |last10=Altmann |first10=Friedrich |last11=Reski |first11=Ralf |last12=Decker |first12=Eva L. |title=Stable Protein Sialylation in Physcomitrella |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |date=2020-12-18 |volume=11 |pages=610032 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2020.610032 |pmid=33391325 |pmc=7775405 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Populus trichocarpa#Use as a model organism|Populus trichocarpa]]''
| Balsam poplar
| [[Tree]]
|drought tolerance, lignin biosynthesis, wood formation, plant biology, morphology, genetics, and ecology<ref>{{cite journal| url = https://academic.oup.com/treephys/article/33/4/357/1716508| title = Revisiting the sequencing of the first tree genome: Populus trichocarpa {{!}} Tree Physiology {{!}} Oxford Academic| journal = Tree Physiology| date = April 2013| volume = 33| issue = 4| pages = 357–364| doi = 10.1093/treephys/tps081| last1 = Wullschleger| first1 = Stan D.| last2 = Weston| first2 = D. J.| last3 = Difazio| first3 = S. P.| last4 = Tuskan| first4 = G. A.| pmid = 23100257}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" style="background:#ffdead;" | Animals, nonvertebrate
| ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]''
|Nematode, Roundworm
| [[Worm]]
|differentiation, development
|-
| ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]''
| Fruit fly
| [[Insect]]
|developmental biology, human brain degenerative disease<ref>{{cite journal| journal=Science Express|first1=Susan L.|last1=Lindquist|first2=Nancy M.|last2=Bonini|url=https://www.hhmi.org/news/parkinsons-disease-mechanism-discovered |title=Parkinson's Disease Mechanism Discovered |date=22 Jun 2006 |publisher=Howard Hughes Medical Institute |access-date=11 Jul 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Kim|first1=H|last2=Raphayel |first2=A |last3=LaDow |first3=E |last4= McGurk|first4=L |last5= Weber|first5=R|last6= Trojanowski|first6=J|last7= Lee|first7=V|last8= Finkbeiner|first8=S |last9= Gitler|first9=A |last10= Bonini|first10=N |date=2014 |title=Therapeutic modulation of eIF2α-phosphorylation rescues TDP-43 toxicity in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis disease models |journal= [[Nature Genetics]]|volume=46 |issue= 2|pages= 152–60|doi= 10.1038/ng.2853|pmc= 3934366|pmid= 24336168}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Callosobruchus maculatus]]''
| Cowpea Weevil
| [[Insect]]
|developmental biology
|-
| rowspan="9" style="background:#ffdead;" | Animals, vertebrate
| ''[[Danio rerio]]''
| Zebrafish
| [[Fish]]
|embryonic development
|-
| ''[[Mummichog|Fundulus heteroclitus]]''
| Mummichog
| [[Fish]]
| [[Behavioral endocrinology|effect of hormones on behavior]]
|-
| ''[[Nothobranchius furzeri]]''
| Turquoise killifish
| [[Fish]]
|aging, disease, evolution
|-
| ''[[Japanese rice fish|Oryzias latipes]]''
| Japanese rice fish
| [[Fish]]
|fish biology, sex determination<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-809633-8.03245-3 |chapter=Molecular and Chromosomal Aspects of Sex Determination |title=Reference Module in Life Sciences |year=2017 |last1=Siegfried |first1=K.R. |isbn=978-0-12-809633-8 }}
</ref>
|-
| ''[[Anolis carolinensis]]''
| Carolina anole
| [[Reptile]]
|reptile biology, evolution
|-
| ''[[Mus musculus]]''
| House mouse
| [[Mammal]]
|disease model for humans
|-
| ''[[Gallus gallus]]''
| Red junglefowl
| [[Bird]]
|embryological development and organogenesis
|-
| ''[[Australian zebra finch|Taeniopygia castanotis]]''
| Australian zebra finch
| [[Bird]]
| vocal learning, neurobiology<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mello|first1=Claudio V. |date=2014 |title= The Zebra Finch, Taeniopygia guttata: An Avian Model for Investigating the Neurobiological Basis of Vocal Learning |journal= [[Cold Spring Harbor Protocols]]|volume=2014 |issue=12 |pages= 1237–1242|doi= 10.1101/pdb.emo084574|pmc= 4571486|pmid= 25342070}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Xenopus laevis]]''<br>''[[Western clawed frog|Xenopus tropicalis]]''<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.genomeweb.com//node/939634?hq_e=el&hq_m=701632&hq_l=1&hq_v=2de76155bb |title=JGI-Led Team Sequences Frog Genome |date=29 April 2010 |access-date=30 April 2010 |publisher=Genome Web |work=GenomeWeb.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807211657/http://www.genomeweb.com//node/939634?hq_e=el&hq_m=701632&hq_l=1&hq_v=2de76155bb |archive-date=August 7, 2011 }}</ref>
| African clawed frog<br>Western clawed frog
| [[Amphibian]]
|embryonic development
|}