Editing Moctezuma II (section)

==Reign==
[[File:Coronación de Moctezuma II, en el folio 152.png|thumb|upright=1.2|left|Moctezuma's coronation according to the [[Durán Codex]]]]
After his coronation, Moctezuma set up thirty-eight more provincial divisions, largely to centralize the empire. He sent out bureaucrats, accompanied by military garrisons, who made sure tax was being paid, national laws were being upheld and served as local judges in case of disagreement.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Townsend|first=Camilla|title=Fifth Sun: A New History of the Aztecs|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0-19-067306-2|location=Oxford|pages=72–73}}</ref>

===Internal policy===
====Natural disasters====
Moctezuma's reign began with difficulties. In the year 1505, a major drought resulted in widespread [[crop failure]], and thus a large portion of the population of central Mexico began to starve. One of the few places in the empire not affected by this drought was [[Totonacapan]], and many people from Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco sought refuge in this region to avoid starvation. Large amounts of [[maize]] were brought from this area to aid the population.<ref name="Anales">{{cite book|translator-first=Rafael|translator-last=Tena|title=Anales de Tlatelolco|trans-title=Annals of Tlatelolco|year=2004|orig-year=1528|publisher=Conaculta|location=México, D. F.|language=es, nah|isbn=970-35-0507-4|page=99}}</ref> Moctezuma and the lords of [[Texcoco (altepetl)|Texcoco]] and Tlacopan, [[Nezahualpilli]], and Totoquihuatzin, attempted to aid the population during the disaster, including using all available food supplies to feed the population and raising tributes for one year.{{sfn|de Alva Ixtlilxóchitl|1892|p=309}} The drought and famine ultimately lasted three years,{{sfn|de Sahagún|1577|loc=book VIII, fol. 2v}} and at some point became so severe that some noblemen reportedly sold their children as slaves in exchange for food to avoid starvation. Moctezuma ordered the ''tlacxitlan'', the criminal court of Tenochtitlan (which aside from judging criminals also had the job of freeing "unjustified" slaves), to free those children and offer food to those noblemen.{{sfn|de Sahagún|1577|loc=book VIII, fol 25v – 26r}} Another natural disaster, of lesser intensity, occurred in the winter of 1514, when a series of dangerous snowstorms resulted in the destruction of various crops and property across Mexico.{{sfn|de Alva Ixtlilxóchitl|1892|p=319}}

====Policies and other events during his reign====
During his government, he applied multiple policies that centered the government of the empire on his person, though it is difficult to tell exactly to which extent those policies were applied, as the records written about such policies tend to be affected by propaganda in favor of or against his person.{{refn|group=N.B.|name=Ixtlilxochitl|An example of this is Alva Ixtlilxóchitl, an important chronicler whose writings were likely influenced by his own opinions and propaganda. He was a direct descendant of the ''tlatoani'' Ixtlilxochitl II,<ref>{{Cite Appletons'|wstitle=Ixtlilxochitl, Fernando de Alba|year=1900}}</ref> who allied with the Spanish conquistadors during the conquest of the empire because of his rivalry with Moctezuma and his decisions, and it is possible his opinions of Moctezuma were highly biased because of this event.}}

According to Alva Ixtlilxóchitl, among Moctezuma's policies were the replacement of a large portion of his court (including most of his advisors) with people he deemed preferable, and increasing the division between the commoner and noble classes, which included the refusal to offer certain honors to various politicians and warriors for being commoners.{{sfn|de Alva Ixtlilxóchitl|1892|p=310}} He also prohibited any commoners or [[illegitimate child]]ren of the nobility from serving in his palace or high positions of government. This was contrary to the policies of his predecessors, who did allow commoners to serve in such positions.{{sfn|Vazquez Chamorro|1981|p=210}}

Moctezuma's [[elitism]] can be attributed to a long conflict of interests between the nobility, merchants, and warrior class. The struggle occurred as the result of the conflicting interests between the merchants and the nobility and the rivalry between the warrior class and the nobility for positions of power in the government. Moctezuma likely sought to resolve this conflict by installing [[Despotism|despotist]] policies that would settle it.{{sfn|Vazquez Chamorro|1981|p=208}} However, it is also true that many of his elitist policies were put in place because he did not want to "work with inferior people", and instead wanted to be served by and interact with people he deemed more prestigious, both to avoid giving himself and the government a bad reputation and to work with people he trusted better.{{sfn|Durán|1867|p=417}} However, some of his policies also affected the nobility, as he had intentions of reforming it so that it would not pose a potential threat to the government; among these policies was the obligation of the nobility to reside permanently in Tenochtitlan and abandon their homes if they lived elsewhere.{{sfn|Vazquez Chamorro|1981|p=211}}

Regarding his economic policies, Moctezuma's rule was largely affected by natural disasters in the early years. As mentioned before, the famine during his first years as ''tlatoani'' resulted in a temporary increase in tribute in some provinces to aid the population. Some provinces, however, ended up paying more tribute permanently, most likely as the result of his primary military focus shifting from territorial expansion to stabilization of the empire through the suppression of rebellions. Most of the provinces affected by these new tributary policies were in the [[Valley of Mexico]]. For example, the province of [[Amaquemecan]], which formed part of the [[Chalco (altépetl)|Chalco]] region, was assigned to pay an additional tribute of stone and wood twice or thrice a year for Tenochtitlan's building projects.{{sfn|Vazquez Chamorro|1981|p=209}} This tributary policy eventually backfired, as some of the empire's subjects grew disgruntled with Moctezuma's government and launched rebellions against him, which eventually resulted in many of these provinces—including Totonacapan (under the ''de facto'' leadership of [[Chicomacatl]]), Chalco and [[Mixquic]] (which were near Tenochtitlan)—forming alliances with [[Spain]] against him.{{sfn|Díaz del Castillo|2011|pp=141, 499}}

The famine at the beginning of his rule also resulted in the abolishment of the ''huehuetlatlacolli'' system, which was a system of [[serfdom]] in which a family agreed to maintain a ''tlacohtli'' ([[slave]] or serf) perpetually. This agreement also turned the descendants of the ones who agreed into serfs.{{sfn|Vazquez Chamorro|1981|p=211}}

During his campaign against [[Jaltepec]] and Cuatzontlan ([[#Territorial expansion|''see below'']]), he made negotiations with the [[Tlatelolca]] to obtain the weapons and resources needed. As a result of these negotiations, Tlatelolco was given more sovereignty; they were permitted to rebuild their main temple which was partially destroyed in the [[Battle of Tlatelolco]] in a civil war during [[Axayácatl]]'s reign, act largely independently during military campaigns, and be absolved from paying tribute.{{sfn|Durán|1867|pp=435–437}}{{sfn|Vazquez Chamorro|1981|p=210}}

Many of these policies were planned together with his uncle [[Tlilpotonqui]], ''[[Cihuacoatl (position)|cihuacoatl]]'' of Mexico and son of [[Tlacaelel]], at the beginning of his reign,{{sfn|Durán|1867|p=417}} while others, such as his tributary policies, were created as the result of various events, like the famine which occurred at the beginning of his rule. His policies, in general, had the purpose of centralizing the government in his person through the means of implementing policies to settle the divide between the nobility and commoners and abolishing some of the more [[feudal]] policies of his predecessors, while also making his tributary policies more severe to aid the population during natural disasters and to compensate for a less expansionist focus in his military campaigns.{{sfn|Vazquez Chamorro|1981|p=211}}

Most of the policies implemented during his rule would not last long after his death, as the empire fell into Spanish control on 13 August 1521 as a result of the [[Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire]], one year after he died.{{sfn|Díaz del Castillo|2011|p=621}} The new Spanish authorities implemented their laws and removed many of the political establishments founded during the pre-Hispanic era, leaving just a few in place. Among the few policies that lasted was the divide between the nobility and the commoners, as members of the pre-Hispanic nobility continued to enjoy various privileges under the [[Viceroyalty of New Spain]], such as land ownership through a system known as ''cacicazgo''.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Pedro|last=Carrasco|title=Las tierras de dos indios nobles en Tepeaca en el siglo XVI|trans-title=The lands of two Indian nobles in Tepeaca in the 16th century|journal=Tlalocan: A Journal of Source Materials on the Native Cultures of Mexico|publisher=University of California|location=Los Angeles|volume=4|issue=2|pages=97–119|year=1963|language=es|url=https://revistas-filologicas.unam.mx/tlalocan/index.php/tl/article/view/314/312|doi=10.19130/iifl.tlalocan.1963.314|access-date=25 January 2022|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first=Patricia|last=Cruz Pazos|title=Cabildos y cacicazgos: alianza y confrontación en los pueblos de indios novohispanos|trans-title=Cabildos and cacicazgos: alliance and confrontation at pueblos de indios from New Spain|journal=Revista Española de Antropología Americana|publisher=Universidad Complutense de Madrid|volume=34|pages=149–162|year=2003|url=https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/REAA/article/download/REAA0404110149A/23445|access-date=25 January 2022}}</ref>

====Construction projects====
{{see also|Casas Nuevas de Moctezuma}}
[[File:Moctezuma palace.jpg|thumb|left|Moctezuma's Palace from the ''[[Codex Mendoza]]'' (1542)]]
[[File:Wikimania 2015 15.07.2015 17-00-11.JPG|thumb|left|The National Palace]]

[[File:Sitio del Totocalli y el palacio de Moctezuma II en el mapa te Tenochtitlán de Hernán Cortés (1524).png|thumb|The location of Moctezuma's palace (left) is south of the central plaza of Tenochtitlan and the ''Totocalli'' (down) next to it in a map likely made by Hernán Cortés.]]
Moctezuma, like many of his predecessors, built a ''tecpan'' (palace) of his own. This was a particularly large palace, which was somewhat larger than the [[National Palace (Mexico)|National Palace]] that exists today which was built over it, being about 200 meters long and 200 meters wide. However, little [[archaeological]] evidence exists to understand what his palace looked like, but the various descriptions of it and the space it covered have helped reconstruct various features of its layout. Even so, these descriptions tend to be limited, as many writers were unable to describe them in detail. The Spanish captain [[Hernán Cortés]], the main commander of the Spanish troops that entered Mexico in the year 1519, himself stated in his letters to the king of Spain that he would not bother describing it, claiming that it "was so marvelous that it seems to me impossible to describe its excellence."<ref name="Evans 2004">{{cite journal|first=Susan Toby|last=Evans|editor-first1=Susan Toby|editor-last1=Evans|editor-first2=Joanne|editor-last2=Pillsbury|title=Aztec Palaces and Other Elite Residential Arquitecture|journal=Palaces of the Ancient New World|year=2004|publisher=Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection|isbn=0-88402-300-1|location=Washington, D.C.|url=https://anth.la.psu.edu/documents/Evans_AztecPalaces.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220130215656/https://anth.la.psu.edu/documents/Evans_AztecPalaces.pdf|archive-date=30 January 2022|pages=15, 22–24}}</ref>

The palace had a large courtyard that opened into the central plaza of the city to the north, where [[Templo Mayor]] was. This courtyard was a place where hundreds of courtiers would hold multiple sorts of activities, including feasts and waiting for royal business to be conducted. This courtyard had suites of rooms that surrounded smaller courtyards and gardens.<ref name="Evans 2004" />

[[File:Remains of the palace of Moctezuma II in the National Palace of Mexico.jpg|thumb|Remains of the ''Casa Denegrida'' in the [[Museo Nacional de las Culturas]] at the time of its excavation]]
His residence had many rooms for various purposes. Aside from his room, at the central part of the upper floor, there were two rooms beside it which were known as ''coacalli'' (guest house). One of these rooms was built for the lords of Tlacopan and Texcoco, the other two members of the Triple Alliance, who came to visit. The other room was for the lords of [[Colhuacan (altepetl)|Colhuacan]], [[Tenayuca|Tenayohcan]] (today known as [[Tenayuca]]) and Chicuhnautlan (today, {{interlanguage link|Santa María Chiconautla|es}}). The exact reason why this room had this purpose remains uncertain, though a few records like [[Codex Mendoza]] say the reason was that these lords were personal friends of Moctezuma. There was also another room which became known as {{lang|la|[[Casa Denegrida de Moctezuma]]}} (Spanish: Moctezuma's Black House), a room with no windows and fully painted black which was used by Moctezuma to [[meditate]]. Remains of this room have been found in recent years in modern [[Mexico City]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Hallados los restos del palacio del emperador Moctezuma en Ciudad de México|trans-title=Remains of the palace of emperor Moctezuma found in Mexico City|newspaper=El País|date=6 June 2008|url=https://elpais.com/cultura/2008/06/07/actualidad/1212789602_850215.html}}</ref> The upper floor had a large courtyard which was likely used as a ''cuicacalli'', for public shows during religious rituals. The bottom floor had two rooms which were used by the government. One of them was used for Moctezuma's advisors and judges who dealt with the situations of the commoners (likely the ''Tlacxitlan''). The other room was for the war council (likely the ''Tequihuacalli''), where high-ranking warriors planned and commanded their battles.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://codicemendoza.inah.gob.mx/index.php|title=Códice Mendoza|publisher=[[Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia]]|access-date=24 January 2022}}</ref>

As part of the construction of Moctezuma's palace, various projects were made which made it more prestigious by providing entertainment to the public.

[[File:Totocall - zoológico de Tenochtitlán, en el folio 30v del libro VIII.png|thumb|left|The ''Totocalli'' as depicted in the Florentine Codex]]
One of the most famous among these projects was the ''{{interlanguage link|Totocalli|es}}'' (House of Birds), a [[zoo]] which had multiple sorts of animals, mainly [[Bird|avian]] species, but also contained several [[predator]]y animals in their section. These animals were taken care of by servants who cleaned their environments, fed them, and offered them care according to their species. The species of birds held within the zoo were widely varied, holding animals like [[quetzal]]s, [[eagle]]s, [[true parrot]]s, and others, and also included water species like [[roseate spoonbill]]s and various others that had their [[pond]].{{sfn|Díaz del Castillo|2011|p=287}}{{sfn|de Sahagún|1577|loc=book VIII, fol. 30r–30v}}

The section with animals other than birds, which was decorated with figures of gods associated with the wild, was also considerably varied, having [[jaguar]]s, [[Mexican wolf|wolves]], [[snake]]s, and other smaller predatory animals. These animals were fed on hunted animals like [[deer]], [[turkeys]], and other smaller animals. Allegedly, the dead bodies of sacrificial victims were also used to feed these animals, and after the battle known as [[La Noche Triste]], which occurred during the early stages of the [[Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire]] in June 1520 (during which [[La Noche Triste#Loss of control in Tenochtitlan|Moctezuma died]]), the bodies of dead Spaniards may have been used to feed them.{{sfn|Díaz del Castillo|2011|pp=287–288}}

This place was highly prestigious, and all sorts of important people are said to have used to visit this place, including artists, craftsmen, government officials, and [[blacksmith]]s.{{sfn|de Sahagún|1577|loc=book VIII, fol. 30r–30v}}

The ''Totocalli'', however, was burnt and destroyed, along with many other constructions, in the year 1521 during the [[Siege of Tenochtitlan]], as the Spanish captain Hernán Cortés ordered for many of the buildings that formed part of the royal palaces to be burnt to demoralize the Mexica army and civilians. Though Cortés himself admitted that he enjoyed the zoo, he stated that he saw it as a necessary measure in his [[Third letter of Hernán Cortés to the Emperor Charles V|third letter]] to [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|King Charles I of Spain]].{{sfn|Cortés|1866|p=222}}

Another construction was the [[Chapultepec]] [[Aqueduct (water supply)|aqueduct]], built in 1506 to bring fresh water directly from Chapultepec to Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco.<ref name="Anales" /> This water was driven to the merchant ports of the city for people to drink and to the temples.{{sfn|Díaz del Castillo|2011|pp=235, 298–299}} This aqueduct was destroyed less than a year after Moctezuma's death, during the [[Siege of Tenochtitlan]] in 1521, as the Spaniards decided to destroy it to cut Tenochtitlan's water supply. Some Mexica warriors attempted to resist its destruction, but were repelled by the Tlaxcalan allies of the Spanish.{{sfn|Díaz del Castillo|2011|p=566}}

===Territorial expansion during his rule, military actions and foreign policy===
[[File:Fiestas de la coronación de Moctezuma II, en el folio 158v.png|thumb|Celebrations during Moctezuma's coronation according to the [[Diego Durán|Durán Codex]]]]
At the beginning of his rule, he attempted to build diplomatic ties with Tlaxcala, Huexotzinco (today, [[Huejotzingo]]), Chollolan ([[Cholula (Mesoamerican site)|Cholula]]), [[Tarascan Empire|Michoacan]], and [[Metztitlán]], by secretly inviting the lords of these countries to attend the celebrations for his coronation before the continuation of the [[flower war]]s, which were wars of religious nature arranged voluntarily by the parties involved with no territorial purposes, but instead to capture and sacrifice as many soldiers as possible. During this period, Mexico and Tlaxcala still were not at war, but the tension between these nations was high, and the embassy sent for this purpose was put in a highly risky situation, for which reason Moctezuma chose as members of the embassy only experts in [[diplomacy]], [[espionage]], and languages. Fortunately, his invitation was accepted, and Moctezuma used this opportunity to show his greatness to the lords who attended. However, because the invitation was secret to avoid a scandal for inviting his rivals to this ceremony, Moctezuma ordered that no one should know that the lords were present, not even the rulers of [[Tlacopan]] (today known as Tacuba) and Texcoco, and the lords saw themselves often forced to pretend to be organizers to avoid confusion.{{sfn|Durán|1867|pp=425–429}} Though Moctezuma would continue to hold meetings with these people, where various religious rituals were held, it did not take long for large-scale conflicts to erupt between these nations.

An important thing to note is that contrary to popular belief, Tlaxcala was not Mexico's most powerful rival in the central Mexican region in this period, and it would not be so until the final years of pre-Hispanic Mexico in 1518–19. In the opening years of the 16th century, Huejotzingo was Mexico's actual military focus, and it proved itself to be one of the most powerful political entities until these final years, as a series of devastating wars weakened the state into being conquered by Tlaxcala.{{sfn|Isaac|1983|pp=423–425}}

During his reign, he married the queen of [[Ecatepec]], [[Tlapalizquixochtzin]],{{sfn|Chimalpahin|1997|p=101}} making him king consort of this ''[[altepetl]]'', though according to the [[True History of the Conquest of Mexico|chronicle]] written by [[Bernal Díaz del Castillo]], very few people in Mexico knew about this political role, being only a few among his closest [[courtier]]s among those who knew.{{sfn|Díaz del Castillo|2011|p=283}}

====Early military campaigns====
[[File:Victorias militares de Moctezuma II, en los folios 15v a 16v.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|Moctezuma's military victories listed in [[Codex Mendoza]]]]
The first military campaign during his rule, which was done in honor of his coronation, was the violent suppression of a rebellion in Nopala and Icpatepec. For this war, a force of over 60,000 soldiers from Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, [[Tepanec]] lands, [[Chalco (altépetl)|Chalco]], and [[Xochimilco]] participated, and Moctezuma himself went to the frontlines. Approximately 5100 prisoners were taken after the campaign, many of whom were given to inhabitants of Tenochtitlan and Chalco as slaves, while the rest were sacrificed in his honor on the fourth day of his coronation. In Nopala, Mexica soldiers committed a massacre and burned down the temples and houses, going against Moctezuma's wishes.{{sfn|Hassig|1988|p=219}} After the campaign, celebrations for his coronation continued in Tenochtitlan.{{sfn|Durán|1867|pp=422–425, 430}} Moctezuma's territorial expansion, however, would not truly begin until another rebellion was suppressed in Tlachquiauhco (today known as [[Tlaxiaco]]), where its ruler, Malinalli, was killed after trying to start the rebellion. In this campaign, all adults above the age of 50 within the city were killed under Moctezuma's orders as he blamed them for the rebellion.{{sfn|Hassig|1988|p=223}} A characteristic fact about Moctezuma's wars was that a large portion of them had the purpose of suppressing rebellions rather than conquering new territory, contrary to his predecessors, whose main focus was territorial expansion.<ref name="Aragón 1931" />

====Rebellions====
[[File:Codex Magliabechiano (141 cropped).jpg|300px|right|thumb|Human sacrifice as shown in the [[Aztec codices#Codex Magliabechiano|Codex Magliabechiano]],  Folio 70.
Heart-extraction was viewed as a means of liberating the ''Istli'' and reuniting it with the Sun: the victim's transformed heart flies Sun-ward on a trail of blood.]]
During his reign, multiple rebellions were suppressed by the use of force and often ended with violent results. As mentioned previously, the first campaign during his reign, which was done in honor of his coronation, was the suppression of a rebellion in Nopallan (today known as [[Santos Reyes Nopala]]) and Icpatepec (a [[Mixtec]] town that no longer exists which was near [[Silacayoapam]]), both in modern-day [[Oaxaca]].{{sfn|Durán|1867|p=422}} The prisoners taken during this campaign were later used as [[Slavery in the Aztec Empire|slaves]] or for [[Human sacrifice in Aztec culture|human sacrifice]].

After Mexico suffered a humiliating defeat at [[Atlixco]] during a [[flower war]] against [[Huejotzingo]] ([[#Battle of Atlixco|''see below'']]), many sites in Oaxaca rebelled, likely under the idea that the empire's forces were weakened. However, Moctezuma was able to raise an army numbering 200,000 and marched over the city of Yancuitlan (today known as [[Yanhuitlan]]), a city which had been previously conquered by [[Tizoc]], and conquered Zozollan in the process. Abundant territorial expansion was carried out following this.{{sfn|Hassig|1988|p=299}}

Another notable rebellion occurred in [[Atlixco]] (in modern-day [[Puebla]]), a city neighboring [[Tlaxcala (Nahua state)|Tlaxcala]] which had previously been conquered by Ahuizotl.<ref name="Aragón 1931" /> This rebellion occurred in 1508, and was repressed by a prince named Macuilmalinatzin.{{sfn|de Alva Ixtlilxóchitl|1892|p=309}} This wasn't the first conflict that occurred in this region, as its proximity with Tlaxcala and Huejotzingo would cause multiple conflicts to erupt in this area during Moctezuma's reign.

A large series of rebellions occurred in 1510, likely as a result of [[astrological]] predictions halting some Mexica military operations to a degree. Moctezuma would try to campaign against these rebellions one at a time throughout the following years, campaigning against territories in Oaxaca, including Icpatepec again, in 1511 or 1512.{{sfn|Hassig|1988|p=231}} Some of these revolts occurred as far south as Xoconochco (today known as [[Soconusco]]) and Huiztlan (today, [[Huixtla]]), far down where the Mexican-[[Guatemala]]n border is today. These territories were highly important to the empire and had been previously conquered by his predecessor [[Ahuizotl]], thus Moctezuma had to maintain them under his control.<ref name="Berdan 2009">{{cite journal|first=Frances|last=Berdan|author-link=Frances Berdan|title=Metas y estrategias militares de Moctezuma II|trans-title=Military Goals and Strategies of Moctezuma II|journal=Arqueología Mexicana|year=2009|url=https://arqueologiamexicana.mx/mexico-antiguo/metas-y-estrategias-militares-de-moctezuma-ii|language=es|access-date=18 December 2021}}</ref> These revolts occurred in so many locations that the empire was unable to deal with all of them effectively.

====Territorial expansion====
The empire's expansion during Moctezuma's rule was mainly focused on southwestern [[Mesoamerica]]n territories, in Oaxaca and modern-day [[Guerrero]]. The earliest conquests in this territory were held by [[Moctezuma I]].

The first important conquest during Moctezuma's rule occurred in the year 1504 when the city of Achiotlan (today known as [[San Juan Achiutla]]) was conquered. This war, according to some sources, was supposedly mainly caused by "a small tree which belonged to a lord of the place which grew such beautiful flowers Moctezuma's envy couldn't resist it", and when Moctezuma asked for it, the lord of the city refused to offer it, thus starting the war. After the conquest, this tree was supposedly taken to Tenochtitlan. The second conquest occurred in Zozollan, a place neighboring east of Achiutla, on 28 May 1506, during the campaign against the Yanhuitlan rebellion. This conquest had a particularly violent result, as a special sacrifice was held after the campaign where the prisoners captured in Zozollan were the victims. "The Mexicans killed many of the people from Zozola {{sic}} which they captured in war", according to old sources.{{weasel inline|reason=which sources? 1949 (the source below) is not old for this topic|date=June 2024}}<ref name="Barlow 2015">{{cite journal|first=Robert|last=Barlow|author-link=R. H. Barlow|title=Las conquistas de Moteczuma Xocoyotzin|trans-title=The Conquests of Moteczuma Xocoyotzin|journal=Estudios de cultura náhuatl|issn=0071-1675|volume=49|publisher=Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas|year=2015|orig-year=1949|url=http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0071-16752015000100007|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211210064529/http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0071-16752015000100007|archive-date=10 December 2021|language=es|access-date=10 December 2021}}</ref>

In the year 1507, the year of the [[New Fire Ceremony]], abundant military action occurred. Among the towns that are listed to have been conquered this year are: Tecuhtepec (from which multiple prisoners were sacrificed for the ceremony), Iztitlan, Nocheztlan (an important town northeast of Achiutla), Quetzaltepec, and Tototepec.<ref name="Barlow 2015" />

[[File:Códice Azoyú 1, 31-30 (siglo XVI).png|thumb|left|Folios 30 to 31 (right to left) of [[Codex Azoyú 1]] depicting the campaigns launched by Moctezuma II in Tlapanec lands.]]
[[File:Territorios de Tlachinollan a principios del siglo XVI.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Campaigns launched by the Mexica over the Tlapanec Kingdom of Tlachinollan, including the conquest of Tototepec by Moctezuma II. The map doesn't show his campaigns against Xipetepec, Acocozpan, Tetenanco, and Atlitepec.]]
The conquest of Tototepec formed part of the conquests of some of the last few [[Tlapanec people|Tlapanec]] territories of modern-day Guerrero, an area which had already been in decline since Moctezuma I began his first campaigns in the region and probably turned the Kingdom of Tlachinollan (modern-day [[Tlapa]]) into a tributary province during the rule of Lord Tlaloc between 1461 and 1467 (though the kingdom would not be invaded and fully conquered until the reign of Ahuizotl in 1486, along with Caltitlan, a city neighboring west of Tlapa). In between the years of 1503 and 1509, a campaign was launched against Xipetepec, and another was launched (as mentioned previously) in 1507 against Tototepec, which had previously been a territory conquered by Tlachinollan in the mid-14th century. The campaign in Tototepec occurred as the result of a large group of Mexica merchants sent by Moctezuma being killed after they attempted to trade for some of the resources of the area on his behalf.{{sfn|Durán|1867|pp=442–443}} During the conquest of Tototepec, two important Mexica noblemen, Ixtlilcuechahuac and Huitzilihuitzin (not to be confused with the [[Huitzilihuitl|''tlatoani'' of this name]]), were killed.{{sfn|de Alva Ixtlilxóchitl|1892|p=309}} All the population of Tototepec, except for the children, was massacred by the Mexica forces, and about 1350 captives were taken.{{sfn|Hassig|1988|p=227}} Another campaign was launched in 1515 to conquer Acocozpan and Tetenanco and reconquer Atlitepec, which had been previously conquered by Ahuizotl in 1493.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Constanza|last=Vega Sosa|title=The Annals of the Tlapanecs|year=1992|journal=Supplement to the Handbook of Middle American Indians|publisher=University of Texas Press|location=Austin|volume=5|pages=42–48, 51|isbn=0-292-77650-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yi6xDAAAQBAJ&dq=annals+of+the+tlapanecs&pg=PA34|access-date=15 December 2021}}</ref>

[[File:Matanza de comerciantes mexicas en Quetzaltepec, en el folio 165r.png|thumb|left|The massacre of Mexica merchants in Quetzaltepec. Durán Codex]]
Quetzaltepec was conquered on the same campaign as Tototepec, as both reportedly murdered the merchants sent by Moctezuma in the area. The Mexica managed to raise an army of 400,000 and first conquered Tototepec. Quetzaltepec was also conquered, but it rebelled along with various sites across Oaxaca soon after when the Mexica lost the [[#Battle of Atlixco|Battle of Atlixco]] against [[Huejotzingo]]. Being a fortified city with six walls, the Mexica put the city under siege for several days, with the each of groups of the Triple Alliance attacking from various locations and having over 200 wooden ladders constructed under Moctezuma's orders. The Mexica eventually emerged victorious, successfully conquering the city.{{sfn|Hassig|1988|pp=229–230}}

Several military defeats occurred in some of these expansionist campaigns, however, such as the invasion of Amatlan in 1509, where an unexpected series of snowstorms and blizzards killed many soldiers, making the surviving ones too low in numbers to fight.{{sfn|Hassig|1988|p=231}}

[[File:Conquista de Cuatzontlan durante el gobierno de Moctezuma II, en el folio 161v.png|thumb|War with Cuatzontlan. Durán Codex]]
[[File:Espías obteniendo información de un pueblo rebelde del Imperio mexica, en el folio 67r.png|thumb|left|''Tequihua'' spies gathering information on an enemy city during the night. Codex Mendoza]]
An important campaign was the conquest of Xaltepec (today known as [[Jaltepec]]) and Cuatzontlan and the suppression of the last revolt in Icpatepec, all in Oaxaca. This war started as the result of provocations given by Jaltepec against Moctezuma through killing as many Mexicas as they could find in their area, as some sort of way to challenge him, and the beginning of the revolt by Icpatepec as the result. The Xaltepeca had done this before with previous ''tlatoanis'' and other nations. Moctezuma and the recently elected ruler of Tlacopan themselves went to the fight, along with [[Tlacaelel]]'s grandson and ''[[Cihuacoatl (position)|cihuacoatl]]'' of Mexico in this period Tlacaeleltzin Xocoyotl.{{sfn|Chimalpahin|1997|p=37}} A large portion of the weapons and food was brought by [[Tlatelolco (altepetl)|Tlatelolco]], though they were initially hesitant to do so, but were ordered by Moctezuma to offer it as a tribute to Tenochtitlan, and they received multiple rewards as the result, including the permission to rebuild their main temple (which had been partially destroyed during the [[Battle of Tlatelolco]] which occurred during [[Axayacatl]]'s reign). This campaign had a highly violent result; Moctezuma, after receiving information on the cities gathered by his spies, ordered for all adults in the sites above the age of 50 to be killed to prevent a rebellion once the cities were conquered, similar to the war in Tlachquiauhco. The conquest was done by dividing the army that was brought in 3 divisions; one from Tlacopan, one from Texcoco, and one from Tenochtitlan, so that each one attacked a different city. The Tenochtitlan company attacked Jaltepec. Moctezuma came out victorious and then returned to Mexico through Chalco, where he received many honors for his victory.{{sfn|Durán|1867|pp=432–441}} This war likely happened in 1511, as a war against Icpatepec is recorded to have happened again in that year.<ref name="Barlow 2015" />

After the campaigns in the Oaxaca region, Moctezuma began to move his campaigns into northern and eastern territories around 1514, conquering the site of Quetzalapan, a [[Chichimec]] territory through the [[Huastec civilization|Huastec region]], taking 1332 captives and suffering minimal casualties, with only 95 reported losses. Likely around this time, many other territories in the region were also conquered. He also went to war against the [[Tarascan Empire]] for the first time since [[Axayácatl]] was defeated in his disastrous invasion. This war caused high casualties on both sides. The Mexica succeeded at taking a large amount of captives, but failed to conquer any territory.{{sfn|Hassig|1988|pp=232–233}}

Among the final military campaigns carried out by Moctezuma, aside from the late stages of the war against Tlaxcala, were the conquests of Mazatzintlan and Zacatepec, which formed part of the Chichimec region.{{sfn|Hassig|1988|p=235}}

[[File:Aztecexpansion.png|thumb|left|upright=1.1|Map showing the expansion of the Aztec Empire through conquest. The conquests of Moctezuma II are marked by the color green (based on the maps by Ross Hassig in ''Aztec Warfare'').]]
The approximate number of military engagements during his rule before European contact was 73, achieving victory in approximately 43 sites (including territories already within the empire),<ref name="Barlow 2015" /> making him one of the most active monarchs in pre-Hispanic Mexican history in terms of military actions.<ref name="Aragón 1931" />

However, his rule and policies suffered a very sudden interruption upon the news of the arrival of Spanish ships in the east in 1519 ([[#Contact with the Spanish|''see below'']]).