Editing Maxentius (section)

===War against Constantine===
{{Campaignbox Constantine Wars}}
{{See also|Civil wars of the Tetrarchy (306–324 AD)}}

==== Verona ====
Maxentius expected an attack along his eastern flank from Licinius and stationed an army in [[Battle of Verona (312)|Verona]].<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 41; Odahl, 99–100.</ref> Constantine had smaller forces than his opponent: with his forces withdrawn from Africa, with the praetorian and Imperial Horse Guard, and with the troops he had taken from Severus, Maxentius had an army equal to approximately 100,000 soldiers to use against his opponents in the north.{{citation needed|date=September 2012}} Many of these he used to garrison fortified towns across the region, keeping most stationed with him in Verona. Against this, Constantine could only bring a force of between twenty-five and forty thousand men.{{citation needed|date=September 2012}} The bulk of his troops simply could not be withdrawn from the Rhine frontiers without negative consequences.<ref>Odahl, 99–100.</ref> It was against the recommendations of his advisers and generals, against popular expectation, that Constantine anticipated Maxentius, and struck first.<ref name="ReferenceA" />

==== Turin ====
[[File:Battle of Constantine and Maxentius (detail-of-fresco-in-Vatican-Stanze) c1650 by Lazzaro Baldi after Giulio Romano at the University of Edinburgh.jpg|thumb|left|''Battle of [[Constantine the Great|Constantine]] and Maxentius'' (detail of fresco in the Vatican Museums) c. 1650 by [[Lazzaro Baldi]] after [[Giulio Romano (painter)|Giulio Romano]] at the University of Edinburgh]]

As early as weather permitted,<ref name="ReferenceA"/> late in the spring of 312,<ref name="Odahl, 101">Odahl, 101.</ref> Constantine crossed the Alps with a quarter of his army,{{citation needed|date=September 2012}} a force equivalent to something less than forty thousand men.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Having crossed the [[Cottian Alps]] at the [[Mont Cenis]] pass,<ref name="Odahl, 101"/> he first came to Segusium ([[Susa (TO)|Susa]], [[Italy]]), a heavily fortified town containing a military garrison, which shut its gates to him. Constantine ordered his forces to set its gates on fire and scale its walls, and took the town quickly. Constantine forbade the plunder of the town and advanced into northern Italy.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 41; Odahl, 101.</ref>

At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum ([[Turin]], Italy), Constantine encountered a large force of heavily armed Maxentian cavalry,<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 41; Odahl, 101–02.</ref> labeled ''[[clibanarii]]'' or ''[[cataphract]]i'' in the ancient sources. In the ensuing [[Battle of Turin (312)|battle]] Constantine spread his forces into a line, allowing Maxentius' cavalry to ride into the middle of his forces. As his forces broadly encircled the enemy cavalry, Constantine's own cavalry charged at the sides of the Maxentian cataphracts, beating them with iron-tipped clubs. Many Maxentian cavalrymen were dismounted, while most others were variously incapacitated by the blows. Constantine then commanded his foot soldiers to advance against the surviving Maxentian infantry, cutting them down as they fled.<ref>''Panegyrici Latini'' 12(9).5–6; 4(10).21–24; Odahl, 102, 317–18.</ref> Victory, the panegyrist who speaks of the events declares, came easily.<ref>''Panegyrici Latini'' 12(9).8.1; 4(10).25.1; Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 41, 305.</ref> Turin refused to give refuge to the retreating forces of Maxentius. It opened its gates to Constantine instead. Other cities of the north Italian plain, recognizing Constantine's quick and clement victories, sent him embassies of congratulation for his victory. He moved on to Milan, where he was met with open gates and jubilant rejoicing. He resided there until the middle of the summer of 312 before moving on.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 41–42; Odahl, 103.</ref>

==== Milvian bridge ====
[[File:Sala di costantino, battaglia di Ponte Milvio 05.jpg|thumb|''[[The Battle of the Milvian Bridge (Giulio Romano)|The Battle of the Milvian Bridge]]'' by [[Giulio Romano (painter)|Giulio Romano]]]]

It was expected that Maxentius would try the same strategy as against Severus and Galerius earlier; that is, remaining in the well-defended city of Rome, and sit out a siege which would cost his enemy much more. For somewhat uncertain reasons, he abandoned this plan, however, and offered battle to Constantine near the [[Battle of Milvian Bridge|Milvian Bridge]] on 28 October 312. Ancient sources usually attribute this action to superstition or (if pro-Constantinian) divine providence. Maxentius of course had consulted soothsayers before battle, as was customary practice, and it can be assumed that they reported favourable [[omen]]s, especially as the day of battle would be his ''dies imperii'', the day of his accession to the throne (which was 28 October 306). What else may have motivated him is open to speculation.

The armies of Maxentius and Constantine met north of the city, some distance outside the walls, beyond the [[Tiber]] river on the [[Via Flaminia]]. Christian tradition, especially [[Lactantius]] and [[Eusebius of Caesarea]], claims that Constantine fought under the [[labarum]] in that battle, revealed to him in a dream. Of the battle itself, not much is known – Constantine's forces defeated Maxentius's troops, who retreated to the Tiber, and in the chaos of the fleeing army trying to cross the river, Maxentius fell into the water and drowned. His body was found the next day and paraded through the city, and later sent to Africa, as a sign that he had surely perished. Maxentius' entire family, including his two orphaned children, were also executed.